Analysis of the efficacy, safety, and regulatory status of novel forms of creatine

Creatine has become one of the most popular dietary supplements in the sports nutrition market. The form of creatine that has been most extensively studied and commonly used in dietary supplements is creatine monohydrate (CM). Studies have consistently indicated that CM supplementation increases muscle creatine and phosphocreatine concentrations by approximately 15–40%, enhances anaerobic exercise capacity, and increases training volume leading to greater gains in strength, power, and muscle mass. A number of potential therapeutic benefits have also been suggested in various clinical populations. Studies have indicated that CM is not degraded during normal digestion and that nearly 99% of orally ingested CM is either taken up by muscle or excreted in urine. Further, no medically significant side effects have been reported in literature. Nevertheless, supplement manufacturers have continually introduced newer forms of creatine into the marketplace. These newer forms have been purported to have better physical and chemical properties, bioavailability, efficacy, and/or safety profiles than CM. However, there is little to no evidence that any of the newer forms of creatine are more effective and/or safer than CM whether ingested alone and/or in combination with other nutrients. In addition, whereas the safety, efficacy, and regulatory status of CM is clearly defined in almost all global markets; the safety, efficacy, and regulatory status of other forms of creatine present in today’s marketplace as a dietary or food supplement is less clear

Using genetic methods to investigate dispersal in two badger (Meles meles) populations with different ecological characteristics

Understanding the dispersal behaviour of a species is important for understanding its ecology and evolution. Dispersal in the Eurasian badger (Meles meles) is believed to be very limited, with social groups forming primarily through the retention of offspring. However, most of our knowledge of dispersal in this species comes from studies of high-density populations in the United Kingdom, where badgers are atypical in their behaviour, physiology, ecology and prey specialization. In this study we use genetic methods to compare dispersal patterns in a British and a Swiss population that differ in their ecology and demography. We present well-supported evidence that badgers disperse much further in the low-density continental population, where dispersal may also be female biased. Limited dispersal thus seems not to be an intrinsic behavioural characteristic of the species. Rather, dispersal patterns seem to vary depending on population demography and, ultimately, habitat quality and characteristics. This could have important management consequences, as dispersal can affect the impact of local extinction, and host dispersal has a particularly important role in disease transmission. Even though concentrated studies of a species in a single location may not provide representative data for the species, there are few mammalian studies that compare demography and dispersal patterns across contrasting habitats. Our results provide an example of phenotypic plasticity and suggest that dispersal is determined by the interaction of individual, social and environmental factors that may differ between populations. Heredity (2010) 104, 493-501; doi:10.1038/hdy.2009.136; published online 7 October 200