Dynamics in Educational Outcomes by Gender: Evidence from Pakistan

Abstract. There is strong empirical evidence that show females as a marginalized group in many aspect within Pakistan with its education sector being no different. However it is extremely important not only to document this fact but to analyze how such tendencies are evolving over time within society. This paper is an attempt in this direction, whereby in our analysis not only we assess how different are female and male population in terms of their current enrollment and attained education patterns but also in terms of structure of change in their attainment distribution as we move from older towards younger cohorts. Our findings show though gender should remain an important policy concern in domain of education sector given the prominent discrepancies in current enrolment and attained schooling estimates within male and female population, however distributional analysis of attainment patterns over age cohorts show that there is definitely some evidence of structural shifts in terms of changing economic constraints and social norms within Pakistan. This can be inferred from evidence that show much stronger inclination of higher education in younger cohorts within female attainment distribution.Keywords. Educational attainment, Gender, Age cohort analysis, Pakistan.JEL. I21, J16

Acemoglu, Johnson and Robinson’s Notion of Exogenous Imposition of Colonial Institutions onto Colonies— A Critique in the Light of Historical Evidence

This paper provides critique of Acemoglu, Johnson, and Robinson’s (2001, 2002) notion that rests on the hypothesis of exogenous imposition of colonial institutions onto their respective colonies based on conditions for their settlement. Our research brings forth the logical loopholes in Acemoglu, Johnson, and Robinson (AJR) by constructing arguments against the over-simplified assumption of exogenous imposition of colonial institutions in explaining the differences in development today. To prove our point, we build on two main arguments from history to show that some degree of endogeneity did indeed exist in colonial institutions that were imposed on the colonies. Our first argument revolves around the theme that how Atlantic slave trade evolved with colonialism and had meaningful technological and institutional consequences in the colonial metropolitan state. And these evolving conditions in coloniser’s mother country not only shaped incentives for mercantilist colonialism at one level and at the other became the base of institutional setup of progressive forms. In our second part of the argument, we demonstrate the role of native agency either in the form of local’s formal or informal pre-colonial institutions or in the form of their hold within the colonies, were all important in shaping what path colonisers eventually took for the institutional transfer. Based on these historical evidences, it is concluded that colonial institutions cannot be assumed as an exogenous transfer based on the notion of settlement as per AJR, rather it can be best described as an evolving fit between colonial and pre-colonial institutions. Keywords: Acemoglu, Johnson, and Robinson’s (2001, 2002), Reversal of Fortune, Institutions, Colonialism, Long-term Development Difference

Issues in Statistical Modelling of Human Capital and Economic Growth Nexus

The human capital and growth relationship has been subject to considerable debate in economic literature. The empirical growth models are beset with problems ranging from theoretical frameworks and statistical modelling to estimation procedures. Due to non-availability of precise human capital variable, theoretical knowledge fails when pitched against empirical data. This paper endeavors to answer four main questions that have been figured out prominently in this debate: Is there a direct interplay between human capital and growth? Are parametric techniques incapable of capturing non-linear aspects of human capital-growth relationship as compared to semi-parametric techniques? Are estimates of human capital sensitive to proxy of human capital variables? Are estimates of human capital sensitive to estimation techniques? Our findings reveal that human capital has a well-established role in accelerating growth through both its ‘level effects’ and ‘rate effects’. The results are not sensitive to definition of education variable but are rather technique dependent. The semi-parametric model provides sufficient evidence for non-linearity in human capital-growth relationship contrary to parametric models

PIDE-COVID-19 Blog (no. 28) : Coordination and integration of all stakeholders to counter COVID-19

"The general impression among the common Pakistanis is that the government needs to provide for all the provisions needed to fight against COVID-19. However, the success in China, Singapore, Taiwan, and Hong Kong points to a fundamental fact that efforts of the government alone cannot deal with a pandemic as rampant as COVID-19. No matter how strong or well-equipped a state is, all actors need to contribute within an economy. So far, in the context of Pakistan combatting the pandemic, we have seen mobilization at various fronts, namely government, certain businesses, tech companies, and communities at the local level1. For example, within the industrial sector, there have been efforts for the production of the much-needed ventilators within the automobile-parts manufacturing units and also for protective suits for the paramedical staff within some textile industries. Similarly, all telecommunication companies are working hard to keep Pakistan virtually connected not just for information flow but to keep the economic activity going through virtual means. Further, cellular technology is being used for geotagging of COVID-19 intensity and through the information collected via web-surveys of self-assessment of COVID symptoms2. Hence a lot of good initiatives are coming forth from the industrial sector. Similarly, at the community level, individuals and NGOs can be witnessed making a lot of efforts for the distribution of food. However, effective coordination of the above processes and of the governmental machinery still seem weak at many levels within Pakistan’s response to the pandemic. This can be inferred by how at the community level or by big and small businesses, the efforts seem fragmented. Industries that came forward in the context of ventilators production or production of protective gear for the paramedics are still not working at the level of full capacity3. Similarly, at the community level, what is being reported on media is either help is not reaching the poor, or there may exist duplication by various governmental and non-governmental efforts that need to be checked4.

The Gender Differences in School Enrolment and Returns to Education in Pakistan

Using estimates of schooling demand function and private rate of return to education by gender derived from Household Integrated Economic Survey 2010-11, this paper attempts to examine if there is any dynamics to define a differential behaviour across gender in enrolment in Pakistan and if there is then what can be the possible cause of such discrepancies and how can they be reduced. The first set of analysis focuses on the estimates of probability of enrolment at primary, secondary and tertiary level of education by gender. Strong evidence for higher likelihood of enrolment emerges only at the secondary level of education when the gender is male. The behaviour of the determinants for these schooling demand functions at different levels of education differs by gender. One such key variable is parental education, which is more pronounced in case of mother’s education towards increasing the likelihood of enrolment of girls at the primary and secondary level and of father’s education for boys at all levels and girls at the tertiary level. Hence investing in female education today will not only empower females today but as a positive externality will also lead to gender equity in educational outcomes in the future. Besides this intergenerational externality of investment in female education, the finding establishes that when conditional cash programmes are targeted at mothers as a policy tool they become an effective measure in increasing current female enrolment. Moreover the case for reducing gender disparities in educational outcomes is further supported when we see how gender imbalance in educational attainment and female labour force participation lead to discrepancies in the private rate of return to education by gender. The varied estimates of private rate of returns to education for males and females show that such deviations arise because the females labour force on average is much less educated than males and hence if the object is to raise the rates of returns, a targeted policy for reducing gender differences in enrolment at all levels of education primary, secondary and tertiary will have to be implemented

Issues in Statistical Modelling of Human Capital and Economic Growth Nexus

The human capital and growth relationship has been subject to considerable debate in economic literature. The empirical growth models are beset with problems ranging from theoretical frameworks and statistical modelling to estimation procedures. Due to non-availability of precise human capital variable, theoretical knowledge fails when pitched against empirical data. This paper endeavors to answer four main questions that have been figured out prominently in this debate: Is there a direct interplay between human capital and growth? Are parametric techniques incapable of capturing non-linear aspects of human capital-growth relationship as compared to semi-parametric techniques? Are estimates of human capital sensitive to proxy of human capital variables? Are estimates of human capital sensitive to estimation techniques? Our findings reveal that human capital has a well-established role in accelerating growth through both its ‘level effects’ and ‘rate effects’. The results are not sensitive to definition of education variable but are rather technique dependent. The semi-parametric model provides sufficient evidence for non-linearity in human capital-growth relationship contrary to parametric models

Meet Your Digital Twin in Space? Profiling International Expat’s Readiness for Metaverse Space Travel, Tech-Savviness, COVID-19 Travel Anxiety, and Travel Fear of Missing Out

The metaverse promises an unimaginable future for digital travelers by enabling them to gain unique experiences (e.g., space travel) that would otherwise be impossible in non-virtual reality. Moreover, COVID-19 travel anxiety has triggered growing interest in virtual environments (e.g., metaverse travel) in the aftermath of the pandemic. The cost-conscious and tech-savvy behavior of travelers has been resurrected in the ‘new normal’; however, the fear of missing out (FOMO) is now dictating travelers’ choices for newness, immersive and rewarding travel experiences. To address these emerging trends, promising new technologies, and untested relationships, the present study explored the effects of COVID-19 travel anxiety on the readiness for metaverse space travel. In addition, the moderating influence of tech savviness and travel FOMO was tested on this relationship. Drawing on data of international expats (N = 386) in UAE, the finding based on structural equation modeling (SEM) revealed that the international expat’s readiness for metaverse space travel is positively influenced by their COVID-19 travel anxiety. Moreover, expats with high tendencies of travel FOMO and tech savviness will experience a stronger impact of COVID-19 travel anxiety on their readiness for metaverse space travel. These novel findings guided by prominent theories (e.g., self-determination, SOR, and protection motivation) offer new insights for policy makers and practitioners to strategically achieve digital-tourism transformation and sustainability through emerging and immersive metaverse technologies