Phosphate Rocks

Apatite is the most abundant phosphate mineral which include more than 95% of al phosphorus in the Earth´s crust. The seventh chapter of this book provides brief description of sedimentary and igneous phosphate rocks and introduces basic ideas for characterization and classification of phosphate rocks. The chapter continues with description of biogenic apatites, description of phosphate rocks deposits and introduces other sources of phosphorus. Furthermore, geological role of apatite, cycle of phosphorus, weathering of apatite, fission track analysis and extraterrestrial apatites were described. The last section is dedicated to structure and properties important of non-apatitic phosphate minerals, such as atuanite, crandallite, lazulite, millisite, monazite, tobernite, xenotime etc

Other Minerals from the Supergroup of Apatite

The supergroup of apatite is divided into five groups of minerals. Therefore, minerals from the group of apatite were described in the first chapter, the second chapter of this book continues with description of minerals from the other four groups, i.e. minerals from the group of britholite, belovite, ellestadite and hedyphane. The structure, properties and known localities of these minerals were described. Although carbonate-apatite species are discredited from the IMA list of minerals, the chapter ends with description of structure and properties of carbonate-hydroxylapatite, carbonate-fluorapatite, and carbonate-rich varieties of apatite, i.e. francolite, dahlite, kurskite and collophane. The introduced three basic types of carbonate-apatites, i.e. type A, B and AB) are then discussed in Chapter 10 in depth

Rare-earth Element-bearing Apatites and Oxyapatites

A number of prepared alkaline-earth-rare-earth silicates and germanates also have the structure of apatite type. The fifth chapter of this book then continues with description of synthetic compounds of apatite structure. Attention will be directed to description of rare-earth element bearing apatites and oxyapatites. The structure, properties and preparation of apatite-type silicates, germanates and borates were described. This chapter gives also description of oxygen-rich apatites, which are promising material for electrolytes in solid oxide fuel cells and sensors and explain the basic concepts between structure and conductivity of these compounds. The additional information about application of apatites is given in the last chapter of this book. Furthermore, N-apatite, REE vanadocalcic apatite and apatite type yttrium phosphates were described

Introduction to Apatites

Apatite is the generic name, which was first introduced by German geologist A.G. Werner. These minerals and their synthetic analogs represent a major class of ionic compounds and the most common crystalline form of calcium phosphates, which are of interest of many industrial branches and scientific disciplines. Since, apatite (fluorapatite) is the most abundant phosphate mineral, apatite bearing phosphate rocks represents an important source of inorganic phosphorus. First chapter of this book introduces the basic concepts of nomenclature, composition, classification, crystal structure, mineralogy and properties of minerals from the supergroup of apatite. Furthermore, the minerals from the group of apatite and polysomatic apatites are described. Since, the most of the topics mentioned in this chapter will be developed in the following chapters, the key concepts provided in this chapter are important to understood before proceeding further

Utilization of Compounds of Phosphorus

The last chapter of this book provides brief description of utilization of apatites and phosphorus-bearing compounds in industry and material science research. Since the chemistry of phosphorus is quite complicated and a quickly developing field of science, the topics described below are only limited insights to chemically bonded ceramics and refractories, dental phosphate cements, oil-well cements, phosphate glasses and glass ceramics. Chapter continues with description of functional phosphate materials applied as solid oxide fuel cells electrolytes, sensors, phosphors, catalysts and coatings. The chapter ends with introduction of basic ideas for biological apatite in bone tissue engineering, collagen apatite composites, apatite layers and biocoatings

Substituents and Dopants in the Structure of Apatite

The structure of apatites allows large variations of composition given by the generic formula (M10(XO4)6Z2) including partial or complete substitution of both the cationic as well as the anionic sites, formation of nonstoichiometric forms and solid solutions. More than half of naturally occurring elements can be accommodated by apatite structure in a significant extend. The sixth chapter of this book is divided into five sections. The first, second and the third part deals with many examples of substitution including cationic substitution of M sites, anionic substitution of X-site and anionic substitution of Z-site, respectively. The remaining two sections continue with solid solution of apatites and ends with description of trace elements and their isotopes in the structure of apatite, respectively

Mining and Beneficiation of Phosphate Ore

The first commercial production of phosphate rock began in England in 1847. A wide variety of techniques and equipment is used to mine and process phosphate rocks in order to beneficiate low-grade ores and remove impurities. The eighth chapter of this book deals with mining and beneficiation of phosphate ore. The principle and operating conditions of important parts of manufacturing process including separation, classification, removing of carbonates, calcination and flotation was described. The chapter ends with description of techniques used for extraction of rare earth element

Utilization of Apatite Ores

Phosphate rock is an important mineral commodity used in the chemical industry and production of food. The first section of ninth chapter of this book introduces utilization of apatite ores for manufacturing of phosphorus. The second part deals with production of phosphoric acid via wet and thermal process and utilization of byproducts such as phosphogypsum, phosphorous slag and ferrophosphorus. The last section of this chapter describes the methods for production of fertilizers, such as supephosphates, Thomas slag, ammonium phosphates, thermophosphates, etc., and the chapter ends with environmental demand of phosphate fertilizers

Synthetic Phase with the Structure of Apatite

The previous chapters were dedicated to description of structure and properties of minerals from supergroup of apatite and introduction of method for identification and investigation of properties of phosphate minerals. The first synthesis of apatite was performed by Daubrée by passing the PCl3 vapor over red-hot lime. The fourth chapter of this book introduces techniques for the preparation of synthetic analogs of apatite minerals including solid-state synthesis, wet chemical methods, hydrothermal synthesis as well as methods for preparation of single crystals. Chapter continues with description of structure and properties of synthetic compounds of apatite type and ends with incorporation of 3d-metal ions into the hexagonal channel of apatite

Identification, Characterization and Properties of Apatites

The parameters of unit cell, structure, refractive index, solubility data, PO4/CO3 ratio, surface area, etc., are important parameters for characterization of phosphate rocks. Third chapter of this book introduces methods for identification, characterization and properties of apatites in four main sections. The first part describes techniques used for identification and investigation of properties of phosphate minerals, including X-ray diffraction analysis, powder neutron diffraction, X-ray fluorescence as well as spectroscopic and microscopic methods. Some of these techniques are then demonstrated on the fluorapatite specimen in the second part. The third part of this chapter deals with thermodynamic properties of apatite-type compounds and introduces some of thermodynamic predictive methods. The fourth part is dedicated to dissolution of apatite, where the reaction between solids and liquids according to different dissolution models is described. Chapter ends with methods for the evaluation of reactivity of phosphate rocks