Some methodological/philosophical problems in secondary school science education : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Education at Massey University

An examination of common images of science and the scientist, and of some conceptions of 'science processes' in secondary school science, as depicted in texts, curricula and other public utterances, reveals the influence of certain traditions of philosophy/methodology. The methodological/philosophical positions associated severally with Bacon, Locke and Hume, and the Logical Positivists, are collectively designated as 'Methodological Reductionism' in this study, and are explored and found to be inadequate and/or misleading in the light of recent developments in the philosophy of science. Dissatisfaction with current school science is also found to be a consequence of adoption of narrow, 'functional' goals of science education. Difficulties also arise from: confusion of meanings of scientific terms in relation to their 'ordinary language' usage as contrasted with their specialised scientific usage; teachers' attitudes towards, and understanding of, the nature of science; and teaching methods which despite innovations, have remained essentially content- oriented, fact-laden, formal and didactic. It is argued that if science education is to regain its interest and become educationally more meaningful for students, then an alternative methodological/philosophical rationale for science and 'science processes' is desirable. It is suggested that the adoption of what is basically a Kuhnian epistemology may help to remove misconceptions about science and the scientist, and also help to surmount some of the current difficulties in the teaching of science. To facilitate and accommodate conceptual changes in science education, a teaching and learning strategy based upon Kuhn's notions of 'paradigm' and 'paradigm change' can be utilised. Because current science education is said to be overly formalistic and socially isolated, it is recommended that a multi­ disciplinary approach may not only regain for science its declining interest, but also produce future citizens who are better equipped to deal with science/technology/ society problems and issues, and who will possess the cognitive and affective attributes needed for making a positive contribution within a science- and technology­ based society

Business Ethics versus Economic Incentives: Contemporary Issues and Dilemmas

This paper is based on my experience with teaching a course on ethical dilemmas faced by individuals, managers and businesses in contemporary societies. Modern economic thinking generally presumes that individuals and businesses in a society follow their own self-interest, or private economic incentives. The course highlighted the importance of ethical considerations for action that are based on consideration of others rather than ones own. Four significant ethical dilemmas of modern societies, concerning Crime Reduction and Legalization of Drugs, Saving the Earths Environment, Abortion and Ethics in Business were chosen for class discussion. The readings on ethics in business covered views by management experts such as Peter F. Drucker and David Vogel on the meaning, relevance and evolution of business ethics in modern societies. The pedagogy of the course consisted of lectures and group discussions, during which relevant ethical issues were analyzed by using real-world examples and cases. In a rapidly globalizing economy, Indian managers are likely to confront complex ethical concerns. Therefore, Indian managers need to acquire a deeper knowledge and understanding of ethics in business. A course on business ethics in India should aim to enhance students understanding of ethical behavior, keeping in view the globalization process that is influencing the functioning of Indian firms today.

Preferential Trade Agreements and the World Trade System: A Multilateralist View

This paper reviews recent developments in international trade to evaluate several arguments concerning the merits of preferential trade agreements (PTAs) and their place in the world trade system. Taking a multilateralist perspective, it makes several points: First, despite the proliferation of PTAs in recent years, the actual amount of liberalization that has been achieved through PTAs is actually quite limited. Second, at least a few studies point to significant trade diversion in the context of particular PTAs and thus serve as a cautionary note against casual dismissals of trade diversion as a merely theoretical concern. Equally, adverse effects on the terms-of-trade of non-member countries have also been found in the literature. Third, while the literature has found mixed results on the question of whether tariff preferences help or hurt multilateral liberalization, the picture is different with the more elastic tools of trade policy, such as antidumping duties (ADs); the use of ADs against non-members appears to have dramatically increased while the use of ADs against partner countries within PTAs has fallen. Fourth, despite the rapid expansion of preferences in trade, intra-PTA trade shares are relatively small for most PTAs; multilateral remain relevant to most member countries of the WTO.

KAUTILYA: POLITICS, ETHICS AND STATECRAFT

Kautilya was the minister in the Kingdom of Chandragupta Maurya during 317 – 293 B.C. He has been considered as one of the shrewdest ministers of the times and has explained his views on State, War, Social Structures, Diplomacy, Ethics, Politics and Statecraft very clearly in his book called Arthashastra . The Mauryan Empire was larger than the later British India which expanded from the Indian Ocean to Himalayas and upto to Iran in the West. After Alexander left India, this was the most powerful kingdom in India and Kautilya was minister who advised the King. Before Kautilya there were other philosophers in India who composed the Shastras but his work was robust and encompassed all the treaties written earlier. I considered Kautilya for three reasons. Firstly, I wanted to highlight the patterns of thinking in the east which was present long before Machiavelli wrote his “Prince”. Secondly Kautilya’s ideologies on state, statecraft and ethics are very realistic and vastly applicable in today’s context. Thirdly, I feel Kautilya’s work on diplomacy is greatly underrepresented in the western world and it is quite apt to analyze his work in that area. If we compare statesman on the four dimension framework of: War & Peace, Human Rights, International Economic Justice and World Order Kautilya had a strong opinion on all the four aspects. In fact people like Bismark and Woodrow Wilson in recent history had been able to demonstrate their views only on two of the four dimensions. Kautilya’s work is primarily a book of political realism where State is paramount and King shall carry out duties as advised in his book to preserve his state. Kautilya’s work is so deep rooted in realism that he goes to describe the gory and brutal means a King must adopt to be in power. This could have been one reason why Ashoka, the grandson of Chandragupta Maurya whom Kautilya advised renounced violence and war thus taking the path of Dharma or Morals. In this paper, I shall primarily focus on Kautilya’s thoughts on war, diplomacy and ethics. I have devoted a section to compare Kautilya with great philosophers like Plato and later ponder over why Machiavelli’s work looks so abridged and succinct in comparison to Kautilya’s work. Kautilya’s work is then seen in the light of today’s politics and ethics. As Max Weber put it aptly in his lecture, “Politics as a Vocation”, he said Machiavelli’s work was harmless when compared to Kautilya’s Arthashastra.

Reciprocated Unilateralism in Trade Reforms with Majority Voting

This paper shows how unilateral liberalization in one country can increase the voting support for reciprocal reduction in trade barriers in a partner country. When trade policies are determined simultaneously in the two countries, we show the possibility of multiple political equilibria - countries may both be protectionist or trade freely with each other. Starting with trade protection in both countries, a unilateral reform in one country is thus shown to bring about a free trade equilibrium (a self-enforcing state) that is consistent with majority voting in both countries.