Influence of gut microbiota on neuropsychiatric disorders

The last decade has witnessed a growing appreciation of the fundamental role played by an early assembly of a diverse and balanced gut microbiota and its subsequent maintenance for future health of the host. Gut microbiota is currently viewed as a key regulator of a fluent bidirectional dialogue between the gut and the brain (gut-brain axis). A number of preclinical studies have suggested that the microbiota and its genome (microbiome) may play a key role in neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative disorders. Furthermore, alterations in the gut microbiota composition in humans have also been linked to a variety of neuropsychiatric conditions, including depression, autism and Parkinson’s disease. However, it is not yet clear whether these changes in the microbiome are causally related to such diseases or are secondary effects thereof. In this respect, recent studies in animals have indicated that gut microbiota transplantation can transfer a behavioral phenotype, suggesting that the gut microbiota may be a modifiable factor modulating the development or pathogenesis of neuropsychiatric conditions. Further studies are warranted to establish whether or not the findings of preclinical animal experiments can be generalized to humans. Moreover, although different communication routes between the microbiota and brain have been identified, further studies must elucidate all the underlying mechanisms involved. Such research is expected to contribute to the design of strategies to modulate the gut microbiota and its functions with a view to improving mental health, and thus provide opportunities to improve the management of psychiatric diseases. Here, we review the evidence supporting a role of the gut microbiota in neuropsychiatric disorders and the state of the art regarding the mechanisms underlying its contribution to mental illness and health. We also consider the stages of life where the gut microbiota is more susceptible to the effects of environmental stressors, and the possible microbiota-targeted intervention strategies that could improve health status and prevent psychiatric disorders in the near future.Peer reviewe

Effect of a Diet Supplemented with α-Tocopherol and β-Carotene on ATP and Antioxidant Levels after Hepatic Ischemia-Reperfusion

Ischemia-reperfusion injury associated with liver transplantation remains a serious complication in clinical practice. In the present study the effect of intake of α-tocopherol or β-carotene to limit liver injury by oxidative stress in ischemia and reperfusion was explored. Wistar rats were fed with diets enriched with α-tocopherol (20 mg/day) or β-carotene (3 mg/day) for 21 days. After 21 days, their livers were subjected to 15 and 30 min of ischemia and afterwards were reperfused for 60 min. The recovery of levels of ATP during reperfusion was better in the group of rats whose diets were supplemented with α-tocopherol or β-carotene than in the group control. The supplementation of the diet induced changes in the profile of enzymatic antioxidants. The supplementation with α-tocopherol and β-carotene resulted in a decreased of superoxide dismutase during the ischemia and a recovery was observed after reperfusion. Not changes were observed for the enzymes catalase and glutathione peroxidase and glutathione but their values were higher to those of the group control. In conclusion, the supplementation with α-tocopherol and β-carotene improve the antioxidant and energetic state of liver after ischemia and reperfusion injury

Gestational Diabetes Mellitus and its Effects on the Developing Cerebellum: A Narrative Review on Experimental Studies

Diabetes mellitus during pregnancy is a common complication of gestation, but its effects on the offspring’s development are poorly understood. Recently, some studies reported that gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) impairs cerebellar development, and some genetic alterations have been described as consequences. Cerebellum, one of the hindbrain derived structures in the posterior cranial fossa, plays a crucial role in cognition and behavioral functions. In recent years, some surveys stated that gestational diabetes hasadverse effects on the fetus’s cerebellum. Disruption of cerebellar cortex morphogenesis, reduce the volume of the cerebellum, reduce the thickness of cerebellar cortex layers, and its neuronal cells and effects on the expression of synaptophysin, insulin, and insulin-like growth factor -1 receptors are some of the maternal diabetes effects on developing cerebellum. On other hand, GDM, as a neurotoxic agent, impaired cerebellar development and could be a cause for the behavioral, functional, and structural anomalies observed in pups of diabetic mothers. Based on the literature review, most studies have pointed out that administering insulin in patients with GDM decreased the cellular and molecular alterations that induced by GDM in the developing cerebellum. Undoubtedly, screening strategies for all pregnant women are necessary

Dolor abdominal crónico en la infancia : Hacia la consulta de alta resolución en Atención Primaria

El dolor abdominal crónico genera multitud de visitas tanto en Atención Primaria como en el hospital. El trabajo muestra cómo puede ser enfocado este proceso en la consulta de Atención Primaria. Nosotros planteamos pautas diagnósticas del dolor abdominal crónico mediante analítica y estudios de imagen individualizados según las indicaciones. Nuestro objetivo es iniciar el diagnóstico y el tratamiento del dolor abdominal crónico, convirtiendo la consulta de Atención Primaria en consulta de alta resolución para esta patología.Chronic abdominal pain causes constant visits of patients in primary and hospital care. This work shows how to approach this process in Primary Care. We show the diagnosis of abdominal pain in children with individualized laboratory testing and imagine studies according to indication. Our purpose is to begin the diagnosis and the management, changing Primary Care into a high resolution form of pediatric healthcare for this [email protected]

Effect of Adding Resistant Maltodextrin to Pasteurized Orange Juice on Bioactive Compounds and Their Bioaccessibility

[EN] Resistant maltodextrin (RMD) is a water-soluble and fermentable functional fiber. RMD is a satiating prebiotic, reducer of glucose and triglycerides in the blood, and promoter of good gut health, and its addition to food is increasingly frequent. Therefore, it is necessary to study its potential effects on intrinsic bioactive compounds of food and their bioaccessibility. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of adding RMD on the bioactive compounds of pasteurized orange juice with and without pulp, and the bioaccessibility of such compounds. RMD was added at different concentrations: 0 (control sample), 2.5%, 5%, and 7.5%. Ascorbic acid (AA) and vitamin C were analyzed using HPLC, whereas total phenols, total carotenoids (TC), and antioxidant capacity were measured using spectrophotometry. After that, sample in vitro digestibility was assessed using the standardized static in vitro digestion method. The control orange juice with pulp presented significantly higher values of bioactive compounds and antioxidant capacity than the control orange juice without pulp (p < 0.05). RMD addition before the juice pasteurization process significantly protected all bioactive compounds, namely total phenols, TC, AA, and vitamin C, as well as the antioxidant capacity (AC) (p < 0.05). Moreover, this bioactive compound protective effect was higher when higher RMD concentrations were added. However, RMD addition improved phenols and vitamin C bioaccessibility but decreased TC and AA bioaccessibility. Therefore, the AC value of samples after gastrointestinal digestion was slightly decreased by RMD addition. Moreover, orange pulp presence decreased total phenols and TC bioaccessibility but increased AA and vitamin C bioaccessibility.This research was supported by Agencia Valenciana de la Innovacio (Generalitat Valenciana) (research grant ref. INNTAL31/19/002).Arilla, E.; García-Segovia, P.; Martínez-Monzó, J.; Codoñer-Franch, P.; Igual Ramo, M. (2021). Effect of Adding Resistant Maltodextrin to Pasteurized Orange Juice on Bioactive Compounds and Their Bioaccessibility. Foods. 10(6):1-15. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10061198S11510

Stability of vitamin C, carotenoids, phenols, and antioxidant capacity of pasteurised orange juice with resistant maltodextrin storage

[EN] Resistant maltodextrin (RMD) was added at increasing concentrations (0%, 2.5%, 5% and 7.5%) before pasteurisation to orange juice to analyse its potential protective effect on the health-related bioactive compounds of pasteurised orange juice throughout its storage time. Samples were characterised in terms of basic physicochemical properties and bioactive compounds at the beginning of the storage. Higher concentrations of RMD proved to better preserve the bioactive compounds of orange juice, thus obtaining a higher antioxidant capacity (AC). Stability of all samples was determined by measuring the same parameters at days 0, 15, 45, 75, 105, 136 and 170 of storage. °Brix and pH were very stable in all samples along storage, while all bioactive compouds had negative variations. However, RMD addition slightly improved ascorbic acid, vitamin C, total phenols, and total carotenoids retention, improving then its AC. This effect was greater in the 5% RMD-added samples. All bioactive compounds showed a positive Pearson¿s correlation coefficient with AC. Colour variations were also measured at days 105 and 170. All samples had a positive variation of all colour parameters, being this clearer at day 170. This work enlights the potential functionality of RMD to better preserve the health-related compounds of pasteurised orange juice.Arilla, E.; Martínez-Monzó, J.; Codoñer-Franch, P.; García-Segovia, P.; Igual Ramo, M. (2022). Stability of vitamin C, carotenoids, phenols, and antioxidant capacity of pasteurised orange juice with resistant maltodextrin storage. Food Science and Technology International. https://doi.org/10.1177/1082013222112420

Dried apple enriched with mandarin juice counteracts tamoxifen induced oxidative stress in rats

[EN] The effect of a product made of dehydrated apples enriched with mandarin juice by vacuum impregnation on markers of oxidative stress (plasma antioxidant capacity, carbonyl groups (CGs), 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine (8OHdG) and alpha-tocopherol) was tested in rats. Six groups of animals were studied: one group was fed a standard diet; two groups were supplemented with dehydrated apple either impregnated or not with mandarin juice throughout 28 days; and three groups (one unsupplemented and two supplemented) were additionally treated with tamoxifen (TAM) for 21 days used for induction of oxidative stress. The rats treated with TAM showed an increase in aminotransferases, CGs and 8OHdG. All of these effects were significantly decreased in the animals after apple snack consumption; the addition of mandarin juice into the apple mainly accounts for increased levels of alpha-tocopherol in plasma and liver. These findings suggest that the food product have a protective action against oxidative stress induced by TAM in rats.We appreciate the support of the Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion of Spain for its contribution through project PET2008_0015.Codoñer Franch, P.; Betoret Valls, ME.; López Jaén, AB.; Betoret Valls, N.; Fito Maupoey, P.; Valls Bellés, MV. (2013). Dried apple enriched with mandarin juice counteracts tamoxifen induced oxidative stress in rats. International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition. 64(7):815-821. doi:10.3109/09637486.2013.798267S815821647Ainsworth, E. A., & Gillespie, K. M. (2007). Estimation of total phenolic content and other oxidation substrates in plant tissues using Folin–Ciocalteu reagent. Nature Protocols, 2(4), 875-877. doi:10.1038/nprot.2007.102Alvarez-Parrilla, E., De La Rosa, L. A., Legarreta, P., Saenz, L., Rodrigo-García, J., & González-Aguilar, G. A. (2010). Daily consumption of apple, pear and orange juice differently affects plasma lipids and antioxidant capacity of smoking and non-smoking adults. International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition, 61(4), 369-380. doi:10.3109/09637480903514041Arnaud, J., Fortis, I., Blachier, S., Kia, D., & Favier, A. (1991). Simultaneous determination of retinol, α-tocopherol and β-carotene in serum by isocratic high-performance liquid chromatography. Journal of Chromatography B: Biomedical Sciences and Applications, 572(1-2), 103-116. doi:10.1016/0378-4347(91)80476-sBenzie, I. F. F., & Strain, J. J. (1999). [2] Ferric reducing/antioxidant power assay: Direct measure of total antioxidant activity of biological fluids and modified version for simultaneous measurement of total antioxidant power and ascorbic acid concentration. Methods in Enzymology, 15-27. doi:10.1016/s0076-6879(99)99005-5Betoret, E., Betoret, N., Carbonell, J. V., & Fito, P. (2009). Effects of pressure homogenization on particle size and the functional properties of citrus juices. Journal of Food Engineering, 92(1), 18-23. doi:10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2008.10.028Betoret, E., Sentandreu, E., Betoret, N., Codoñer-Franch, P., Valls-Bellés, V., & Fito, P. (2012). Technological development and functional properties of an apple snack rich in flavonoid from mandarin juice. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies, 16, 298-304. doi:10.1016/j.ifset.2012.07.003Blanda, G., Cerretani, L., Bendini, A., Cardinali, A., Scarpellini, A., & Lercker, G. (2007). Effect of vacuum impregnation on the phenolic content of Granny Smith and Stark Delicious frozen apple cvv. European Food Research and Technology, 226(5), 1229-1237. doi:10.1007/s00217-007-0624-xBruno, R. S., Leonard, S. W., Atkinson, J., Montine, T. J., Ramakrishnan, R., Bray, T. M., & Traber, M. G. (2006). Faster plasma vitamin E disappearance in smokers is normalized by vitamin C supplementation. Free Radical Biology and Medicine, 40(4), 689-697. doi:10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2005.10.051Bouayed, J., Hoffmann, L., & Bohn, T. (2011). Antioxidative Mechanisms of Whole-Apple Antioxidants Employing Different Varieties from Luxembourg. Journal of Medicinal Food, 14(12), 1631-1637. doi:10.1089/jmf.2010.0260Buscemi, S., Rosafio, G., Arcoleo, G., Mattina, A., Canino, B., Montana, M., … Rini, G. (2012). Effects of red orange juice intake on endothelial function and inflammatory markers in adult subjects with increased cardiovascular risk. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 95(5), 1089-1095. doi:10.3945/ajcn.111.031088Choi, E. J. (2008). Antioxidative effects of hesperetin against 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene-induced oxidative stress in mice. Life Sciences, 82(21-22), 1059-1064. doi:10.1016/j.lfs.2008.03.002Eilat-Adar, S., & Goldbourt, U. (2010). Nutritional recommendations for preventing coronary heart disease in women: Evidence concerning whole foods and supplements. Nutrition, Metabolism and Cardiovascular Diseases, 20(6), 459-466. doi:10.1016/j.numecd.2010.01.011Fardet, A. (2010). New hypotheses for the health-protective mechanisms of whole-grain cereals: what is beyond fibre? Nutrition Research Reviews, 23(1), 65-134. doi:10.1017/s0954422410000041Fito, P., Chiralt, A., Betoret, N., Gras, M., Cháfer, M., Martı́nez-Monzó, J., … Vidal, D. (2001). Vacuum impregnation and osmotic dehydration in matrix engineering. Journal of Food Engineering, 49(2-3), 175-183. doi:10.1016/s0260-8774(00)00220-xHaminiuk, C. W. I., Maciel, G. M., Plata-Oviedo, M. S. V., & Peralta, R. M. (2012). Phenolic compounds in fruits - an overview. International Journal of Food Science & Technology, 47(10), 2023-2044. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.xHyson, D. A. (2011). A Comprehensive Review of Apples and Apple Components and Their Relationship to Human Health. Advances in Nutrition, 2(5), 408-420. doi:10.3945/an.111.000513Jedrychowski, W., Maugeri, U., Popiela, T., Kulig, J., Sochacka-Tatara, E., Pac, A., … Musial, A. (2010). Case–control study on beneficial effect of regular consumption of apples on colorectal cancer risk in a population with relatively low intake of fruits and vegetables. European Journal of Cancer Prevention, 19(1), 42-47. doi:10.1097/cej.0b013e328333d0ccJung, M., Triebel, S., Anke, T., Richling, E., & Erkel, G. (2009). Influence of apple polyphenols on inflammatory gene expression. Molecular Nutrition & Food Research, 53(10), 1263-1280. doi:10.1002/mnfr.200800575Kujawska, M., Ignatowicz, E., Ewertowska, M., Markowski, J., & Jodynis-Liebert, J. (2010). Cloudy apple juice protects against chemical-induced oxidative stress in rat. European Journal of Nutrition, 50(1), 53-60. doi:10.1007/s00394-010-0114-yLevine, R. L., Garland, D., Oliver, C. N., Amici, A., Climent, I., Lenz, A.-G., … Stadtman, E. R. (1990). [49] Determination of carbonyl content in oxidatively modified proteins. Methods in Enzymology, 464-478. doi:10.1016/0076-6879(90)86141-hMiller, N. J., & Rice-Evans, C. A. (1997). Factors Influencing the Antioxidant Activity Determined by the ABTS•+Radical Cation Assay. Free Radical Research, 26(3), 195-199. doi:10.3109/10715769709097799Nakayama, S., Atsumi, R., Takakusa, H., Kobayashi, Y., Kurihara, A., Nagai, Y., … Okazaki, O. (2009). A Zone Classification System for Risk Assessment of Idiosyncratic Drug Toxicity Using Daily Dose and Covalent Binding. Drug Metabolism and Disposition, 37(9), 1970-1977. doi:10.1124/dmd.109.027797Nazarewicz, R. R., Zenebe, W. J., Parihar, A., Larson, S. K., Alidema, E., Choi, J., & Ghafourifar, P. (2007). Tamoxifen Induces Oxidative Stress and Mitochondrial Apoptosis via Stimulating Mitochondrial Nitric Oxide Synthase. Cancer Research, 67(3), 1282-1290. doi:10.1158/0008-5472.can-06-3099Poulsen, M., Mortensen, A., Binderup, M.-L., Langkilde, S., Markowski, J., & Dragsted, L. O. (2011). The Effect of Apple Feeding on Markers of Colon Carcinogenesis. Nutrition and Cancer, 63(3), 402-409. doi:10.1080/01635581.2011.535961Re, R., Pellegrini, N., Proteggente, A., Pannala, A., Yang, M., & Rice-Evans, C. (1999). Antioxidant activity applying an improved ABTS radical cation decolorization assay. Free Radical Biology and Medicine, 26(9-10), 1231-1237. doi:10.1016/s0891-5849(98)00315-3Santos, D. (2002). Carvedilol Protects against Doxorubicin-Induced Mitochondrial Cardiomyopathy. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, 185(3), 218-227. doi:10.1006/taap.2002.9532Sentandreu, E., Izquierdo, L., & Sendra, J. M. (2006). Differentiation of juices from clementine (Citrus clementina), clementine-hybrids and satsuma (Citrus unshiu) cultivars by statistical multivariate discriminant analysis of their flavanone-7-O-glycosides and fully methoxylated flavones content as determined by liquid chromatography. European Food Research and Technology, 224(4), 421-429. doi:10.1007/s00217-006-0330-0Soyalan, B., Minn, J., Schmitz, H. J., Schrenk, D., Will, F., Dietrich, H., … Janzowski, C. (2010). Apple juice intervention modulates expression of ARE-dependent genes in rat colon and liver. European Journal of Nutrition, 50(2), 135-143. doi:10.1007/s00394-010-0124-9Tiana, L., Caib, Q., & Wei, H. (1998). Alterations of Antioxidant Enzymes and Oxidative Damage to Macromolecules in Different Organs of Rats During Aging. Free Radical Biology and Medicine, 24(9), 1477-1484. doi:10.1016/s0891-5849(98)00025-2Vieira, F. G. K., Di Pietro, P. F., da Silva, E. L., Borges, G. S. C., Nunes, E. C., & Fett, R. (2012). Improvement of serum antioxidant status in humans after the acute intake of apple juices. Nutrition Research, 32(3), 229-232. doi:10.1016/j.nutres.2011.12.008Watanabe, Y., Yoshimoto, K., Okada, Y., & Nomura, M. (2011). Effect of impregnation using sucrose solution on stability of anthocyanin in strawberry jam. LWT - Food Science and Technology, 44(4), 891-895. doi:10.1016/j.lwt.2010.11.00

La ingestión de un producto derivado de manzana deshidratada enriquecido con zumo de mandarina mediante tecnología de impregnación al vacio mejora la capacidad antioxidante y disminuye la inflamación en los niños obesos

[EN] Background: A favorable effect over development of degenerative diseases is derived of an adecuate intake of fruit and vegetables, mainly due to their antioxidant compounds Objectives: The goal of this study was to test the effect in vivo over oxidant status and inflammation in obese children of a novel food product made of dried apples enriched with mandarin juice by vacuum impregnation. Methods: A four-week intervention study was conducted in 41 obese children (> 2 standard deviation score-body mass index). Participants were instructed to follow their usual diet supplemented with 40 g/day of the developed product. Anthropometric parameters were determined including body mass index, waist circumference and estimations of body fat percentage using bioelectrical impedance. Dietary intake was assessed by questionnaire. Metabolic risk factors (blood pressure, lipid profile, glucose and insulin resistance) were recorded. To determine oxidant status, plasma total antioxidant capacity and 8- hydroxydeoxyguanosine, as marker of oxidative damage to DNA, were investigated. High-sensitive C-reactive protein, tumor necrosis factor-α, and interleukins 6 and 1-α were measured as inflammatory markers. Measurements were collected at baseline and at the end of the intervention period. Results: Significant improvement in systolic blood pressure and lipid profile after intervention period was noted. A significant increase in the antioxidant capacity of plasma (ABTS and FRAP assays) and reductions in DNA oxidative damage and inflammatory markers were also found. Conclusion: Overall, adding the product to the diet contributes to ameliorate oxidant and inflammatory status in obese children and several risk factors for athe - rosclerosis.[ES] Antecedentes: Una adecuada ingesta de vegetales previene el desarrollo de enfermedades degenerativas, principalmente debido a sus compuestos antioxidantes. Objetivo: Evaluamos el efecto in vivo en los niños obesos de un nuevo producto alimenticio hecho de manzanas deshidratadas enriquecidas con zumo de mandarina mediante impregnación a vacío. Métodos: Estudio prospectivo longitudinal de cuatro semanas de duración. Se estudiaron 41 niños obesos que suplementaron su dieta habitual con 40 g/día del producto desarrollado. Se determinaron parámetros antropométricos (índice de masa corporal, circunferencia de la cintura) y estimación de la de grasa corporal con impedancia bioeléctrica. La ingesta dietética se evaluó por cuestionario. Se registraron factores de riesgo metabólico (presión sanguínea, perfil lipídico, glucosa y resistencia insulínica). El estado oxidante se investigó mediante la capacidad antioxidante total del plasma y la 8-hydroxideoxiguanosina (marcador de daño oxidativo al ADN) y como marcadores de inflamación valoramos la proteína C-reactiva ultrasensible, el factor de necrosis tumoral-α y las interleukinas 6 y 1-α. Las mediciones se recogieron al inicio y al final del período de intervención. Resultados: Encontramos una mejoría significativa en la presión arterial sistólica y en el perfil lipídico después del período de intervención. Igualmente demostramos un aumento significativo de la capacidad antioxidante del plasma, una reducción del daño oxidativo del ADN y de los marcadores inflamatorios. Conclusión: La adición a la dieta del producto elaborado con manzana deshidratada, y enriquecido con zumo de mandarina mediante impregnación al vacío, contribuye a mejorar el estado oxidante e inflamatorio en los niños obesos, así como diversos factores de riesgo cardiometabólicoWe appreciate the support of the Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion of Spain for its contribution through project PET2008_0015.Codoñer Franch, P.; Betoret Valls, ME.; Betoret Valls, N.; López Jaén, AB.; Valls Bellés, MV.; Fito Maupoey, P. (2013). Dried apple snacks enriched with mandarin juice improves antioxidant capacity and decreases inflammation in obese children. Nutricion Hospitalaria. 28(4):1177-1183. https://doi.org/10.3305/nh.2013.28.4.6580S1177118328

Melatonin in Early Nutrition: Long-Term Effects on Cardiovascular System

Breastfeeding protects against adverse cardiovascular outcomes in the long term. Melatonin is an active molecule that is present in the breast milk produced at night beginning in the first stages of lactation. This indoleamine appears to be a relevant contributor to the benefits of breast milk because it can affect infant health in several ways. The melatonin concentration in breast milk varies in a circadian pattern, making breast milk a chrononutrient. The consumption of melatonin can induce the first circadian stimulation in the infant’s body at an age when his/her own circadian machinery is not functioning yet. This molecule is also a powerful antioxidant with the ability to act on infant cells directly as a scavenger and indirectly by lowering oxidant molecule production and enhancing the antioxidant capacity of the body. Melatonin also participates in regulating inflammation. Furthermore, melatonin can participate in shaping the gut microbiota composition, richness, and variation over time, also modulating which molecules are absorbed by the host. In all these ways, melatonin from breast milk influences weight gain in infants, limiting the development of obesity and comorbidities in the long term, and it can help shape the ideal cellular environment for the development of the infant’s cardiovascular system

Melatonin in Early Nutrition: Long-Term Effects on Cardiovascular System

Breastfeeding protects against adverse cardiovascular outcomes in the long term. Melatonin is an active molecule that is present in the breast milk produced at night beginning in the first stages of lactation. This indoleamine appears to be a relevant contributor to the benefits of breast milk because it can affect infant health in several ways. The melatonin concentration in breast milk varies in a circadian pattern, making breast milk a chrononutrient. The consumption of melatonin can induce the first circadian stimulation in the infant’s body at an age when his/her own circadian machinery is not functioning yet. This molecule is also a powerful antioxidant with the ability to act on infant cells directly as a scavenger and indirectly by lowering oxidant molecule production and enhancing the antioxidant capacity of the body. Melatonin also participates in regulating inflammation. Furthermore, melatonin can participate in shaping the gut microbiota composition, richness, and variation over time, also modulating which molecules are absorbed by the host. In all these ways, melatonin from breast milk influences weight gain in infants, limiting the development of obesity and comorbidities in the long term, and it can help shape the ideal cellular environment for the development of the infant’s cardiovascular system