Atypical electrical brain activity related to attention and inhibitory control in children who stutter

Abstract The aim of this study was to discover attention- and inhibitory control-related differences in the electrical activity of the brain in 6- to 9-year-old children who stutter (CWS) compared to typically developed children (TDC). For studies I and II, the study group consisted of 11 CWS (mean age 8.1 years, age range 6.3–9.5 years; all boys) and 19 fluently speaking children (mean age 8.1 years, age range 5.8–9.6 years; 7 girls). In study III, the participants were twelve boys who stutter (mean age 7.97 years, range 6.3–9.5 years) and 12 typically developed, fluently speaking boys (mean age 8.01 years, range 5.8–9.6 years). The CWS were recruited through local speech therapists and special teachers and newspaper advertisements, while controls were recruited from schools and preschools and among families of department staff and friends. Electroencephalography (EEG) was recorded during a visual Go/Nogo task, which forms a conflict between the pre-potent Go-response and inhibition of response in the Nogo condition, demanding inhibitory control. This EEG data was investigated with conventional event-related potentials (ERP) analysis, potential map and global field power (GFP) analysis and a time-frequency analysis including the periods between tasks. In the ERP analysis, the CWS had a delayed N2 component in the Go condition and a poorly defined P3 component. The potential maps and GFP waveforms confirmed the findings in the Go condition, but also revealed differences in the Nogo condition, described as a prolonged and excessive N2component and an absent P3 component in the CWS. These results indicate problems in the evaluation and classification of the stimulus and the response preparation and inhibition of the response. In the time-frequency analysis, the CWS showed reduced occipital alpha power in the “resting” or preparatory period between visual stimuli, particularly in the Nogo condition. Therefore, the CWS demonstrate reduced inhibition of the visual cortex in the absence of visual stimuli, which is likely related to problems in attentional gating. This newly discovered lack of occipital alpha modulation indicates elementary differences in the regulation of visual information processing in CWS. These findings support the view of stuttering as part of an extensive brain dysfunction involving also attentional and inhibitory networks.Tiivistelmä Tutkimuksen tavoitteena oli tunnistaa tarkkaavuuteen ja inhibitiokontrolliin liittyviä eroja aivojen sähköisessä toiminnassa 6–9-vuotiailla lapsilla, jotka änkyttävät verrattuna tavanomaisesti kehittyviin lapsiin. Osatöissä I ja II koeryhmässä oli 11 änkyttävää lasta (iän keskiarvo 8,1 vuotta, ikäjakauma 6,3–9,5 vuotta) ja verrokkiryhmässä 19 sujuvasti puhuvaa lasta (keskiarvo 8,1 vuotta, jakauma 5,8–9,6 vuotta; 7 tyttöä). Osatyössä III koeryhmässä oli 12 änkyttävää poikaa (keskiarvo 7,97, jakauma 6,3–9,5 vuotta) ja verrokkiryhmässä 12 sujuvasti puhuvaa poikaa (keskiarvo 8,01 vuotta, jakauma 5,8–9,6 vuotta). Koehenkilöitä haettiin puheterapeuttien ja erityisopettajien välityksellä sekä lehti-ilmoituksilla. Verrokkiryhmän osallistujat rekrytoitiin kouluista, esikouluista sekä henkilökunnan ja ystävien perheiden joukosta. Elektroenkefalografia (EEG) rekisteröitiin visuaalisen Go/Nogo-tehtävän aikana. Tehtävässä ennakoidun Go-vasteen ja Nogo-tilanteessa vaadittavan reaktiosta pidättäytymisen välille syntyvä ristiriita kuormittaa inhibitiokontrollia. EEG-dataa arvioitiin herätevasteiden avulla, tutkimalla jännitekarttojen ja koko pään jännitevaihteluiden eroja sekä käyttämällä aika-taajuusanalyysia, mihin sisältyi myös tehtävien välinen aika. Herätevasteanalyysissä änkyttävillä lapsilla oli viivästynyt N2-vaste Go-tilanteessa ja huonosti erottuva P3-vaste. Jännitekarttojen ja koko pään jännitevaihteluiden perusteella tämä löydös vahvistui, mutta ryhmät erosivat toisistaan myös Nogo-tilanteessa. Änkyttävillä lapsilla N2-vaste oli pidentynyt ja voimakkaampi ja P3-vaste puuttui. Löydökset viittaavat ongelmiin ärsykkeen arvioinnissa ja luokittelussa sekä reaktion valmistelussa ja inhibitiossa. Aika-taajuusanalyysissa änkyttävillä lapsilla oli okkipitaalialueilla merkittävästi vähemmän alfataajuista toimintaa tehtävien välisen ”lepotilan” tai valmistautumisvaiheen aikana erityisesti Nogo-tilanteessa. Änkyttävillä lapsilla näköaivokuoren inhibitio ärsykkeen puuttuessa on näin ollen heikentynyt, mikä viittaa häiriöön tarkkaavuuden suuntaamisessa. Tämä todettu alfatoiminnan säätelyn puuttuminen ilmentää perustavanlaatuisia eroja näköärsykkeen käsittelyssä änkyttävillä lapsilla. Löydökset tukevat näkemystä änkytyksestä osana laaja-alaista aivojen toiminnan häiriötä, joka käsittää todennäköisesti myös tarkkaavuuteen ja inhibitiokontrolliin liittyviä verkostoja

Decreased occipital alpha oscillation in children who stutter during a visual Go/Nogo task

Abstract Objective: Our goal was to discover attention- and inhibitory control-related differences in the main oscillations of the brain of children who stutter (CWS) compared to typically developed children (TDC). Methods: We performed a time-frequency analysis using wavelets, fast Fourier transformation (FFT) and the Alpha/Theta power ratio of EEG data collected during a visual Go/Nogo task in 7–9 year old CWS and TDC, including also the time window between consecutive tasks. Results: CWS showed significantly reduced occipital alpha power and Alpha/Theta ratio in the “resting” or preparatory period between visual stimuli especially in the Nogo condition. Conclusions: The CWS demonstrate reduced inhibition of the visual cortex and information processing in the absence of visual stimuli, which may be related to problems in attentional gating. Significance: Occipital alpha oscillation is elementary in the control and inhibition of visual attention and the lack of occipital alpha modulation indicate fundamental differences in the regulation of visual information processing in CWS. Our findings support the view of stuttering as part of a wide-ranging brain dysfunction most likely involving also attentional and inhibitory networks

Human NREM Sleep Promotes Brain-Wide Vasomotor and Respiratory Pulsations

Abstract The physiological underpinnings of the necessity of sleep remain uncertain. Recent evidence suggests that sleep increases the convection of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and promotes the export of interstitial solutes, thus providing a framework to explain why all vertebrate species require sleep. Cardiovascular, respiratory and vasomotor brain pulsations have each been shown to drive CSF flow along perivascular spaces, yet it is unknown how such pulsations may change during sleep in humans. To investigate these pulsation phenomena in relation to sleep, we simultaneously recorded fast fMRI, magnetic resonance encephalography (MREG), and electroencephalography (EEG) signals in a group of healthy volunteers. We quantified sleep-related changes in the signal frequency distributions by spectral entropy analysis and calculated the strength of the physiological (vasomotor, respiratory, and cardiac) brain pulsations by power sum analysis in 15 subjects (age 26.5 ± 4.2 years, 6 females). Finally, we identified spatial similarities between EEG slow oscillation (0.2–2 Hz) power and MREG pulsations. Compared with wakefulness, nonrapid eye movement (NREM) sleep was characterized by reduced spectral entropy and increased brain pulsation intensity. These effects were most pronounced in posterior brain areas for very low-frequency (≤0.1 Hz) vasomotor pulsations but were also evident brain-wide for respiratory pulsations, and to a lesser extent for cardiac brain pulsations. There was increased EEG slow oscillation power in brain regions spatially overlapping with those showing sleep-related MREG pulsation changes. We suggest that reduced spectral entropy and enhanced pulsation intensity are characteristic of NREM sleep. With our findings of increased power of slow oscillation, the present results support the proposition that sleep promotes fluid transport in human brain