Soil Compaction and Porosity Changes Caused During the Operation of Timberjack 450C Skidder in Northern Iran

Skidding by means of heavy forestry machinery can affect soil physical properties. We assessed the effects of ground based skidding on soil bulk density and total porosity under the Iranian mountainous forest conditions. Treatments included a combination of four levels of traffic intensity (1, 3, 6, and 15 passes) of a Timberjack 450C rubber skidder and two levels of slope (20%). The bulk density was highest in samples taken in the wheel tracks and between them, and decreased towards both ends of the track (0.5 to 4 m). The results showed that bulk density increased with traffic frequency, while total porosity decreased. Average soil bulk density ranged from 0.96 g cm-3 (after one machine pass and slope 20%) on the skid trail, while the respective value was 0.7 g cm–3 for the undisturbed area. On compacted soil, total porosity at the 0–10 cm depth decreased by 37% compared with non-compacted soil. The results showed that slope steepness had a strong effect on the soil disturbance, with the critical value for bulk density occurring after 15 machine passes at slope 20%. The impacts of soil compaction could be evidenced in a distance of up to 2 m from the end of the skidding trail. The latter finding suggests that special interest in the form of managerial measures should be taken during the skidding operations in an effort to minimize the adverse effects of ground based skidding on the physical properties of the soil

Mental Workload, Occupational Fatigue and Musculoskeletal Disorders of Forestry Professionals: The Case of a Loblolly Plantation in Northern Iran

Musculoskeletal disorders (MSD) comprise one of the most important occupational health issues in forestry professions. The purpose of the study was to examine the association among musculoskeletal disorders, anthropometric and personal data, mental workload and occupational fatigue in forest professionals in northern Iran by means of the Nordic Musculoskeletal Questionnaire (NMQ), the National Aeronautics and Space Administration Task Load Index (NASA-TLX), and the Swedish Occupational Fatigue Inventory (SOFI). More than eight out of every ten subjects reported at least one MSD symptom during the past 12 months, with lower back (72.5%), feet and ankles (49%) and neck (41.2%) being the more frequently affected body regions. Similar MSD prevalences were reported for the period of seven days prior to data collection. Both the mental workload (grand mean 73.18±7.54) and occupational fatigue (grand mean 106.20±24.53) achieved high scores. MSD prevalence was found to be correlated with the SOFI score and the NASA-TLX score during the last year and seven days prior to data collection, respectively. Overall, the study results confirm the very demanding nature of the forest professions, which are characterized by high MSD prevalence, increased occupational fatigue and high mental workload. Given the small-scale forestry characteristics in the study area, taking measures such as introducing vocational training and promoting the use of personal protective equipment are some first necessary steps for the local forestry workforce

Comparison of Sampling Methods Used to Evaluate Forest Soil Bulk Density

The objective of this study was to compare forest soil bulk density values obtained through conventional sampling methods such as the volumetric ring (VR: diameter 5 cm, length 10 cm) and paraffin sealed clod (PSC), with a variation of the VR, where rectangular boxes (RB) of four different dimensions were used. Sampling transects were established on a machine operating trail located in a beech (Fagus orientalis Lipsky) stand in Northern Iran. At each transect, three soil samples were collected at three different locations. Samples from different methods were spaced by a 50 cm distance to avoid direct interactions. The soil class of our study area was Combisols according to the WRB classification with a clay texture. Soil bulk density differed significantly between the three sampling methods. The lowest values were obtained with the RB (average 1.25 g cm-3), followed by the VR (average 1.40 g cm-3), and lastly the PSC (average 1.52 g cm-3). The values obtained with four variations of the RB method ranged from 1.22 to 1.28 g cm-3 and were not found significantly different. When soil bulk density was calculated after the removal of the weight and volume of roots included in the samples, the values were determined to be higher than before but with the same range of magnitude. The lowest coefficient of variation was found for RB4 (CV=2.3%), while the highest values were observed for VR and RB1 (CV=5.7%)

Combined Effects of Skidding Direction, Skid Trail Slope and Traffic Frequency on Soil Disturbance in North Mountainous Forest of Iran

Harvest traffic with heavy equipment causes damage to forest soils. Whereas increased soil damage has been reported with increasing harvest equipment traffic and on increasing slope gradients, it is unclear how much soil damage is caused by different directions of skidding. We examined the effects of traffic frequency, skid trail slope and skidding direction on the dry bulk density and total porosity of skidding trail soil in an Iranian temperate forest. The studied treatments included combinations of three different traffic frequencies (3, 7, and 12 passes of a rubber-tired skidder), three levels of slope (20%) and two skidding directions (uphill and downhill). The impact on soil properties was greatest during the skidder initial passes. On steep slopes, only three skidder passes were required to cause substantial increases in soil bulk density relative to control plots, regardless of skidding direction. Independently of the traffic frequency and trail slope, uphill skidding caused substantially greater increases in dry bulk density and greater decreases in soil porosity than did downhill skidding. Total porosity was significantly lower on steep slopes than on gentle slopes regardless of traffic intensity and skidding direction. In general, fewer uphill skidder passes were required to achieve substantial soil disturbance than was the case for downhill skidding, possibly because skidders move more slowly when travelling upwards and uphill skidding places greater loads on the skidder rear axle

Short Term Impacts of Harvesting 0perations on Soil Chemical Properties in a Mediterranean Oak Ecosystem

Soil physical and chemical properties can be seriously affected by forest operations. There is a knowledge gap on this topic for oak ecosystems, which can play a significant role in the context of multiple-use forestry. The main objective of this study was to analyse forest floor and topsoil changes (0–10 cm) two years after the application of small-scale thinning (50% reduction of basal area) and clear-cut operations using mules to carry harvested material in a Northern Greece oak (Quercus frainetto Ten)ecosystem. The total amount of forest floor (O1+O2 horizons) was reduced by 37.8% in the thinned and 30.8% in the clear-cut plots compared to control plots. These large reductions are mainly due to reduction in the O2 horizon in the treated plots. Decomposition was reduced in the treated plots, possibly due to the new drier conditions. Treatments increased the soil pH but not to a significant extent. No evidence of erosion was found in the experimental plots due to the protective function of the forest floor and the use of designated mule trails. The areal extent of soil compaction was limited to only 3% of the total area mainly due to the careful planning and implementation of animal skidding. Small differences in C (%) and Ν (%) were found among control, thinned and clear-cut plots. The limiting growth factors in Mediterranean oak ecosystems are soil depth and the seasonal change of soil moisture, especially during the summer dry period. More research on the definition of the optimum thinning degree and extraction systems in similar ecosystems will be important to satisfy the need to improve soil characteristics

Perspectives on protected area and wildfire management in the Black Sea region

Protected areas are necessary for the conservation and enhancement of biodiversity. Wildfires are major threats to forests and other natural areas, because they may cause irreversible damages. The aim of this study was to analyze the perspective of experts (N = 284), from six countries of the Black Sea, on the current status and problems of protected areas and wildfires. Understanding their points of view could enhance future management on these issues in the region. Data collection was carried out for 9 months, using a web-based questionnaire. Wildfires were perceived as a serious problem in Turkey, Armenia and Greece but as a substantially less serious problem in Romania, Ukraine and Moldova. In Greece, Armenia, and especially Ukraine, the current designated protected areas are considered sufficient to maintain biodiversity, while in Romania, Turkey, and especially Moldova, more areas should be designated as protected. A major need in all countries (except for Turkey) is the increased use of information and communication technologies for both wildfire suppression and protected area management. Experts were divided on whether wildfire suppression and management of protected areas are interconnected. However, there is growing awareness of the adverse impacts of climate change in protected areas and the frequency of wildfires in the future. The most frequently suggested measures to alleviate these impacts were: changes in forest management and increasing public awareness for wildfire suppression, along with changes in forest management and increased staff training to enhance protected area conservation.EU INTERREG IV "Black Sea Basin Joint Operational Programme 2007-2013" framework, Black Sea Basin Programme, European Union (EU)

Effects of Ground-Based Skidding on Soil Physical Properties in Skid Trail Switchbacks

Effective skid-trail design requires a solid understanding of vehicle-soil interactions, yet virtually no data exist on the effects of harvest traffic on soils in the switchback curves common in mountainous terrain. We contrast for the first time the effect of skidding on dry bulk density, total porosity, macroporosity, and microporosity in the straight segments of the skid trail and in various positions within switchbacks of differing trail curvature (deflection angle) on different slope gradients. Treatment plots with three replications included combinations of two classes of curvature (narrow = high deflection angle, 60–70°; wide = low deflection angle, 110–130°) and two categories of slope gradient (gentle = ≤20%; steep = >20%). The Cambisol soil was sampled in control and trafficked areas both before and after three passes with a rubber-tired skidder. After only three passes, significant effects were seen for dry soil bulk density (+), total porosity (–), macroporosity (–), and microporosity (+), with steady trends from undisturbed controls to straight segments to wide curves to narrow curves. Soil damage increased gradually and consistently toward the apex of the curve, particularly in narrow curves on gentle slopes. Our results establish that curvature and switchback position are important factors affecting soil compaction in ground skidding. The strong observed effects of even low harvest traffic volume on soil physical properties in curves indicate that the degree of soil compaction in skid trails may be underestimated in areas with numerous switchbacks, the placement of which within a skid trail system may require careful consideration on mountainous terrain

RFID implementations in the wood supply chains: state of the art and the way to the future

The focus of this review paper is to present the state of the art regarding RFID implementations in wood supply chains, covering the tree marking stage till the transportation to the final processor. The easier than ever collection of data using sensors and the emerging ability to exchange information in the context of the Internet of Things (IoT) form a very promising new environment for the optimization of wood supply chains. Driven by currently enhanced, ability to store different layers of information per merchantable unit (tree assortments at final or semi-final form or containers of woody biomass), RFID applications can provide valuable solutions and revolutionize wood supply chains by warranting traceability, combating illegal logging, minimizing waste and offering detailed information of the wood products properties, among other benefits that are presented in the text. The benefits can be identified at the ecological, social and economic levels, addressing the sustainability concerns of modern societies. To make use of this huge potential, a continuous flow and fusion of information at all supply chain stages must be taken for granted, as well as the close cooperation among stakeholders

Analysis of Accidents During Cable Yarding Operations in Austria 1998–2008

This paper deals with accidents in the period 1998 – 2008 reported during harvesting operations in ÖBf AG, Austria’s largest forest enterprise, with a focus on cable yarding. In total 1888 accidents were recorded with 8.7% of these associated with cable yarding activities. The overall accident rate amounted to 36 incidents per million cubic meter extracted by cable yarder. There was a clear spike in accidents between 2 and 3 pm. Most accidents occurred onWednesdays and Mondays (26 and 25%, respectively). The four months of March, June September and November accounted for 45% of all accidents. The majority of accidents (63.2%) were caused by broken spar and anchor trees, bouncing cables and falling objects. Frequently injured body parts were the extremities such as hand and feet (64%) and the head and neck area (15.2%). Contusions (37.8%) are the most common kind of injury followed by bone fractures (12.8%), sprain or strains (11.6%) and punctures or lacerations (10.4%). An average cable yarding accident required 17.9 days for recovery, compared to the 25.6 days for manual extraction and 29.7 days for extraction by means of a tractor or skidder. Accident severity varied among body parts: eye injuries resulted in three lost work days, while injured extremities required 20 days for recovery. During wood extraction, some stems with branches may be unhooked and fall down. In this case, the accidents caused are the most severe needing 27 days for recovery