CORPORATE EFFECTS OF THE DANOSA CASE: IS THE TERMINATION OF MEMBERSHIP OF THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS ALLOWED IN THE CASE OF A PREGNANT BOARD MEMBER?

The Court of Justice of the European Union (Second Chamber) on 11 November 2010 pronounced a judgment in the proceedings between Ms Dita Danosa and LKB Lizings SIA, a limited liability company, concerning the decision of the LKB general meeting of shareholders to remove Ms Danosa from her post as a member of the company’s board of directors during her pregnancy. The Court’s ruling could have signifi cant repercussions on the appointment to and termination of the membership of boards of directors of capital companies in Europe. The authors analyse the corporate effects of the judgment in various countries from the point of view of the principles of company law and emphasise the difference in the contractual and corporate relationships which exist between a company and members of the board of directors. When analysing the ruling of the Court, the authors also point out the differences between public limited companies (both dual and single-board systems) and limited liability companies in terms of the position of members of the board of directors with regard to the termination of membership of the board

Ist die Abberufung eines schwangeren Mitglieds der Unternehmensleitung einer Kapitalgesellschaft Geschlectsdiskriminierung?

Analizom presude Europskog suda u predmetu Danosa, nametnula su se određena pitanja vezana uz zaštitu trudnih članica uprave. Jesu li one radnice ili samozaposlene osobe? Treba li ih, i ako ne potpadaju pod pojam radnica, zaštititi tijekom trudnoće i korištenja prava vezanih uz zaštitu roditeljstva od opoziva iz uprave društva kapitala te ih zaštiti od otkaza ugovora o obavljanju poslova u upravi? Jesu li odredbe Zakona o trgovačkim društvima o opozivu imenovanja članova uprave usklađene s pravnom stečevinom EU-a jer ne sadržavaju ograničenje – ne uzimaju u obzir činjenicu da je u trenutku opoziva članica uprave trudna? U kontekstu pomirenja trudnoće i roditeljstva sa zahtjevima tržišta postavlja se pitanje kako funkcionira uprava društva kapitala kada trudna članica uprave ili članica uprave koja koristi neko od prava vezanih uz zaštitu roditeljstva dulje razdoblje nije u mogućnosti voditi poslove društva. U radu se naglašava razlika između radnopravne zaštite trudnica i zabrane spolne diskriminacije. Nastoji se potvrditi polazna teza prema kojoj je širenje koncepta radnika i na članice uprave nepotrebno jer im je i bez uključivanja u taj koncept zajamčena zaštita od spolne diskriminacije, dok širenje radnopravne zaštite na članice uprave vodi njihovoj faktičnoj diskriminaciji.Several questions were raised in the analysis of the judgment of the European Court of Justice in the Danosa case: Are board members workers or self-employed persons? If they fall under the definition of workers, should they be protected during pregnancy and while enjoying parental benefits from being removed from a company board and from the termination of contract for carrying out activities in the board? Are the provisions of the Companies Act relating to the removal of board members aligned with EU acquis, considering that they do not feature a restriction, i.e. that they do not take into account the fact that a board member may be pregnant at the time of removal? In light of efforts to reconcile pregnancy and parenthood with market demands, the following question arises: how does a company board whose pregnant member or member enjoying a parental benefit cannot perform her board duties for a longer period of time? The authors criticise the Danosa judgment for being focused on the protection of women, rather than on the prohibition of discrimination on grounds of sex, and for not differentiating clearly between the position of board members in terms of the law of obligations and in terms of status law. They consider that, under Croatian legislation, pregnant board members are guaranteed protection from discrimination on grounds of sex even without including pregnant board members in the concept of worker. In turn, the authors criticise Croatian national legislation for overly focusing on the protection of women, evidenced in the absolute ban on dismissals while the worker is enjoying parental benefits, which can last for years. Furthermore, the authors do not believe that the latest amendments to the Act on Maternity and Paternal Benefits, which extend the duration of compulsory maternity leave, will contribute to a higher participation of women in the labour market, nor that the inclusion of board members in the concept of worker will encourage appointment of women to company boards. The seriousness of the problem is underlined by the statistics indicating a small number of female board members in Croatia, but also in EU member states. Some national legislations have resorted to quota systems in the appointment of board members, and there are indications that a similar legislative initiative might be taken in EU law as well. The authors conclude that pregnancy could be successfully reconciled with market demands if the European Court of Justice and Croatian legislation were focused more on the prohibition of discrimination on grounds of sex, and less on broadening the scope of protection of women (which leads to their factual discrimination).Mit der Analyse des Urteils des Europäischen Gerichtshofes in der Rechtssache Danosa drängen sich bestimmte Fragen im Zusammenhang mit dem Schutz schwangerer Geschäftsführerinnen oder Vorstände auf. Sind sie Arbeitnehmerinnen oder Selbstständige? Sollten sie, falls sie nicht unter den Arbeitnehmerbegriff fallen, während der Schwangerschaft und der Inanspruchnahme der mutterschutzrechtlichen Regelungen gegen die Abberufung aus der Unternehmensleitung von Kapitalgesellschaften geschützt werden und Kündigungsschutz bezüglich ihres Dienstvertrags genießen? Sind die Bestimmungen des kroatischen Gesetzes über die Handelsgesellschaften zur Abberufung von Geschäftsführern und Vorständen im Einklang mit dem Acquis, da sie keine Einschränkung bei einer Schwangerschaft des Organmitglieds zum Zeitpunkt der Abberu- fung vorsehen? Im Kontext der Vereinbarung von Schwangerschaft und Elternschaft mit den Forderungen des Marktes stellt sich die Frage, wie die Unternehmensleitung einer Kapitalgesellschaft funktioniert, wenn ein Mitglied schwangerschaftsbedingt oder aufgrund der Wahrnehmung von Elternschutzrechten über längere Zeit nicht in der Lage ist, seinen Geschäftsführungsaufgaben nachzukommen. Die Verfasser üben Kritik am Urteil in der Rechtssache Danosa, weil es mehr auf den Schutz der Frau ausgerichtet ist als auf das Diskriminierungsverbot wegen des Geschlechts und weil es das schuldrechtliche Verhältnis nicht klar abgrenzt von der statusrechtlichen Position einer Geschäftsführerin. Sie vertreten den Standpunkt, dass die kroatische nationale Gesetzgebung schwangeren Mitgliedern der Unternehmensleitung, auch ohne sie dem Arbeitnehmerbegriff zuzuordnen, Schutz gegen geschlechtsbezogene Diskriminierung gewährleistet. Sie unterziehen die nationale Gesetzgebung der Kritik, weil sie ebenso in übertriebenem Maße den Schutz der Frauen in den Vordergrund stellt, was im absoluten Kündigungsverbot während der Nutzung von elternschutzbezogenen Rechten, die teilweise auch über mehrere Jahre gelten können, zum Ausdruck kommt. Ihrer Einschätzung nach werden auch die neuesten Änderungen des Gesetzes über Wöchnerinnen- und Elternbeihilfen, mit denen der Pflichtmutterschaftsurlaub verlängert wurde, nicht zu einer besseren Beteiligung der Frauen am Arbeitsmarkt führen noch wird die Zuordnung von Geschäftsführerinnen oder Vorständen zum Arbeitnehmerbegriff ihre Berufung in die Unternehmensleitungen von Kapitalgesellschaften fördern. Wie ernst das Problem ist, belegt die Statistik mit ihren geringen Zahlen von Frauen in Geschäftsleitungen und Vorständen in Kroatien, aber auch in den EU-Mitgliedstaaten. Einzelne nationale Rechtsordnungen haben inzwischen die Frauenquote für Vorstände und Geschäftsführungen eingeführt, und die Anzeichen sprechen dafür, dass eine analoge Gesetzesinitiative auch im EU-Recht angepeilt wird. Die Autoren kommen zu dem Schluss, dass der Europäische Gerichtshof und die kroatische Gesetzgebung den Weg weiter in Richtung geschlechtsbezogenes Diskriminierungsverbot und nicht in Richtung Erweiterung des Frauenschutzes gehen sollten (da diese letztlich in ihre faktische Diskriminierung führt), was eine erfolgreiche Vereinbarung von Schwangerschaft und Marktanforderungen in Aussicht stellt

Rechtliche Modelle für die Durchführung der obligatorischen Umwandlung von Sportvereinen in Sportaktiengesellschaften

Nastoje se vjerno prikazati sve pretpostavke i praktične mogućnosti provođenja postupka obveznog preoblikovanja športskih klubova-udruga u športska dionička društva. Naime, stupanjem na snagu novog Zakona o športu okrenuta je nova stranica u sustavu hrvatskoga profesionalnog športa. Športski klubovi (prije svega nogometni) godinama su gomilali gubitke koji su opterećivali njihovo poslovanje, ujedno oštećujući vjerovnike, prije svega Republiku Hrvatsku, zbog neplaćenih poreza i doprinosa na primanja profesionalnih športaša. Zakonodavac je reagirao donošenjem novog Zakona o športu koji predviđa postupak obveznog (ali i dobrovoljnog) preoblikovanja profesionalnih športskih klubova-udruga u športska dionička društva. Predlažu se dva modela provođenja postupka obveznog preoblikovanja. Raspravlja se o njihovim prednostima i nedostatcima te upozorava na moguće probleme oživotvorenja predloženih pravnih modela. Ujedno se iznosi zapažanje da norme Zakona o športu koje uređuju postupak obveznog preoblikovanja športskog kluba-udruge u dioničko društvo imaju i pretvorbeno obilježje. Autori teksta članovi su radne grupe za pravna pitanja provođenja postupka obveznog preoblikovanja koju je imenovao HNK Hajduk iz Splita, kao prvoi profesionalni športski kluba koji provodi postupak obveznog preoblikovanja iz udruge u športsko dioničko društvo u Republici Hrvatskoj.The authors present all presumptions and practical possibilities of implementation of obligatory transformation of sports clubs-associations into sports companies. The new Law on Sport is an innovation in the system of Croatian professional sport. For years, sports clubs (primarily football clubs) have accumulated losses as a serious burden to their management and creditors, primarily the Republic of Croatia, due to unpaid taxes and income contributions of professional sportsmen. To remedy this situation, the new Law on Sport has been enacted requiring obligatory (and also voluntary) transformation of professional sports clubs-associations into sports companies. The authors suggest two models of implementing the obligatory transformation: „successive“ and „simultaneous”. Although the same norms are applied to both models, the methods to achieve the main objective, i.e., the formation of a sports company, are different. Their advantages and shortcomings are discussed, and possible problems in the implementation of the proposed legal models are considered. The author also points out that provisions of the Law on Sport regulating the obligatory transformation have a transformational character. The author believes that unprofitable and non-transparent functioning of sports clubs largely resulted from their legal-organizational form of association. It should be pointed out that due to this process, Croatian sport as an important social activity undergoes radical historical changes, opening the possibility to organize a professional sports club as a sports company with the possibility of paying dividends. It is assumed that the management of sports companies will raise the professional and organizational level of professional sport in the Republic of Croatia and attract Croatian and foreign investors, which is very important in the current situation of economic crisis and financial instability.In diesem Beitrag sollen alle Voraussetzungen und praktischen Möglichkeiten zur Durchführung der obligatorischen Umwandlung von Sportvereinen in Sportaktiengesellschaften umfassend dargestellt werden. Das Inkrafttreten des neuen Sportgesetzes bedeutet eine neue Ära im Bereich des kroatischen Profisports. Die Sportklubs (vor allem Fußballklubs) pflegten über Jahre Verluste anzuhäufen, die ihre Geschäftstätigkeit belasteten und zugleich die Gläubiger, aufgrund nicht bezahlter Steuern und Beiträge auf die Bezüge der Profisportler vor allem die Republik Kroatien schädigten. Darauf reagierte der Gesetzgeber mit der Verabschiedung des Gesetzes über den Sport, in dem das Verfahren der obligatorischen (aber auch freiwilligen) Umwandlung professioneller Sportvereine in Sportaktiengesellschaften festgelegt wird. Die Autoren schlagen zwei Modelle zur Durchführung des Pflichtumwandlungsverfahrens vor, die bedingt als „sukzessiv“ und „simultan“ bezeichnet werden. Obwohl für beide Modelle dieselben Normen gelten, erreichen sie ihr Ziel, die Entstehung einer Sportaktiengesellschaft, auf unterschiedlichem Wege. Es werden die Vor- und Nachteile der vorgeschlagenen rechtlichen Modelle erörtert und mögliche Probleme bei ihrer Umsetzung identifiziert. Dabei wird auch festgestellt, dass die das Pflichtumwandlungsverfahren regelnden Normen des Sportgesetzes auch privatisierenden Charakter haben. Es wird der Standpunkt vertreten, dass die unrentable und intransparente Geschäftstätigkeit der Sportvereine in hohem Maße auf ihre rechtliche Organisationsform als Vereine zurückzuführen ist. Der angestoßene Prozess bringt für den wichtigen gesellschaftlichen Bereich des Sports radikale, historische Veränderungen, indem die Möglichkeit eröffnet wird, einen professionellen Sportklub als Aktiengesellschaft mit der Option der Gewinnausschüttung zu gestalten. Es ist anzunehmen, dass die Tätigkeiten der Sportaktiengesellschaften die Seriosität und Organisation des Profisports in der Republik Kroatien auf ein neues Niveau heben werden, aber auch Anreize für in- und ausländische Sportinvestoren bieten können, was in den derzeitigen Bedingungen der Wirtschaftskrise und finanziellen Instabilität besonders wichtig wäre

Extension of the Arbitration Clause to Non-Signatories Through the Piercing of the Corporate Veil

U radu se razmatra mogućnost širenja učinaka arbitražne klauzule na osobe koje nisu strane arbitražnog ugovora putem instituta proboja pravne osobnosti. Proboj pravne osobnosti institut je prava društava kojim su obuhvaćeni slučajevi u kojima se probija, zanemaruje pravni subjektivitet društva kako bi se zahvatilo imovinu odnosno druga prava članova društva. Izlažu se osnovne materijalnopravne pretpostavke za proboj odnosno tipični slučajevi i razlozi proboja s osnova primjene pravnih pravila prava društava. Zastupa se stajalište da je u hrvatskom pravu, u skladu sa stajalištima poredbene pravne književnosti, dopušteno proširiti učinak arbitražne klauzule na članove društva koji nisu ugovorne strane arbitražnog ugovora ako se za to ispune pretpostavke. Upozorava se kako proboj pravne osobnosti općenito, pa tako i širenje učinka arbitražne klauzule putem proboja, predstavlja iznimku od općeg pravila te pred stranu koja se poziva na proboj postavlja visok prag tereta i standarda dokazivanja. Proboj pravne osobnosti stavlja se u odnos s drugim slučajevima širenja arbitražne klauzule na tzv. nepotpisnike arbitražnog ugovora (Non-Signatories). Izlažu se tipični slučajevi i razlozi za širenje učinaka arbitražne klauzule na članove društva probojem odnosno zanemarivanjem pravne osobnosti društva. Konačno, praktičarima se savjetuje kako pristupiti sastavljanju arbitražne klauzule da bi se izbjegla potreba za širenjem klauzule probojem te ih se upozorava koje sve okolnosti moraju uzeti u obzir ako razmatraju proširiti arbitražnu klauzulu s osnova proboja pravne osobnosti.The paper elaborates the possibility of extending the arbitration clause to entities which are not formal parties to the arbitration agreement (Non-Signatories) through the piercing of the corporate veil. Piercing of the corporate veil is a company law concept through which separate legal existence of a company is being disregarded (pierced) in order for the creditors to be able to expand their claims against the company to assets or other rights of the company\u27s shareholders. Basic substantive company law standards for piercing the corporate veil are explained. A stance is taken that under Croatian law, in line with comparative legal literature and views of renowned scholars, it would be allowed to expand an arbitration clause to a Non-Signatory shareholder of the company if certain conditions are met. It is pointed out that the piercing of the corporate veil in corporate law, as well as a method of extension of the arbitration clause, is an exception to the general rule and thus imposes a high standard of proof and places the burden of proof on the party invoking its application. Piercing of the corporate veil is compared to some other typical cases of extending arbitration clauses to Non-Signatories. The most common cases and reasons for piercing are illustrated. In conclusion, practitioners are advised on how to draw up arbitration clauses to avoid the need to expand its application altogether through this method, and are being cautioned against the circumstances which need to be taken into account if the extension of the arbitration clause through the piercing of the corporate veil is considered

Storage contract in Croatian and Macedonian law

Raspravlja se o ugovoru o uskladištenju kao gospodarski iznimno važnom pravnom poslu. Težište je na analizi odredbi Zakona o obveznim odnosima i na poredbenopravnoj raspravi ugovora o uskladištenju. Utvrđuju se prava i obveze ugovornih strana, skladištara i ostavodavca. Nudi se odgovor na pitanje o postojanju, važnosti, obilježjima i ulozi javnih skladišta u domaćoj pravnoj i poslovnoj praksi. Pravna praznina popunjava se u tom dijelu povijesnom i poredbenom analizom propisa koji su uređivali i uređuju poslovanje javnih skladištara. Ističe se da je ugovor o uskladištenju prvenstveno trgovačkopravni posao, ali da ovisno o osobi ostavodavca može poprimiti i obilježja potrošačkog ugovora. U skladu s navedenim de lege ferenda predlažu se određene izmjene ZOO-a kojima bi se dodatno zaštitili ostavodavci potrošači po uzoru na njemačko pravo. Detaljno se razmatraju obveze skladištara kao ugovorne strane koja pruža specijaliziranu i složenu uslugu. Osobito se kritizira odredba čl. 754. ZOO-a koja uređuje pitanje izdavanja posebnog vrijednosnog papira, skladišnice, kao nedovoljno precizna. Zbog te odredbe skladišnice se rijetko izdaju u domaćoj poslovnoj praksi te se stoga predlaže njezina izmjena. Zaključuje se da ne postoje bitne razlike između hrvatskog i makedonskog prava u materiji ugovora o uskladištenju. Temeljitom usporedbom s njemačkim pravom zaključuje se da postoje određeni koraci koje hrvatski zakonodavac treba poduzeti kako bi osuvremenio i poboljšao propise koji uređuju skladišni posao te se u tom smjeru predlažu određena rješenja de lege ferenda.The paper deals with the storage contract as a very important legal transaction in economic terms. The focus of the paper is an analysis of the provisions of the Civil Obligations Act and a discussion of the storage contract from the point of view of comparative law. The rights and duties of contracting parties, the warehouseman and the depositor are explained, and an answer is provided to the question regarding the existence, significance, features and role of public warehouses in Croatian legal and business practice. The legal gap is filled in this part with a historical and comparative analysis of regulations past and present governing the activity of public warehousing. The author emphasises that a storage contract is primarily a commercial legal transaction, but that, depending on the depositor, it may gain features of a consumer contract. In line with the above de lege ferenda, the author proposes certain amendments to the Civil Obligations Act with a view to providing additional protection to depositors-consumers as seen in German law. The obligations of the warehouseman as a contracting party providing a specialised and complex service are considered in detail. Particular criticism is expressed of the provision of Article 754 of the COA, which regulates the matter of issuing a special document – the warehouse receipt, as being too vague. As a result, warehouse receipts are rarely issued in Croatian business practice. This fact underlines the importance of adopting such amendments. The conclusion is drawn that there are no significant differences between Croatian and Macedonian law regarding the storage contract. Finally, by drawing a thorough comparison with German law, the author concludes that there are steps to be taken by the Croatian legislator in order to modernise and improve the regulations governing the warehousing activity, and proposes certain solutions de lege ferenda to that effect