Biomedical metal–organic framework materials : perspectives and challenges

The authors gratefully acknowledge financial support from the German Research Foundation (DFG: LA2937/4-1; SH1223/1-1; SFB 1066; GRK/RTG 2735 (project number 331065168)), the German Federal Ministry of Research and Education (BMBF: Gezielter Wirkstofftransport, PP-TNBC, Project No. 16GW0319K) and the European Research Council (ERC: Meta-Targeting (864121)). The financial support from Welch Foundation (AT-1989-20220331) and from the Human Frontier Science Program (HFSP, within the project RGP0047/2022) are also acknowledged. The authors thank the European Union (European Cooperation in Science and Technology) for the COST Action EU4MOFs (CA22147). Figures were created using BioRender.com.Metal–organic framework (MOF) materials are gaining significant interest in biomedical research, owing to their high porosity, crystallinity, and structural and compositional diversity. Their versatile hybrid organic/inorganic chemistry endows MOFs with the capacity to retain organic (drug) molecules, metals, and gases, to effectively channel electrons and photons, to survive harsh physiological conditions such as low pH, and even to protect sensitive biomolecules. Extensive preclinical research has been carried out with MOFs to treat several pathologies and, recently, their integration with other biomedical materials such as stents and implants has demonstrated promising performance in regenerative medicine. However, there remains a significant gap between MOF preclinical research and translation into clinically and societally relevant medicinal products. Here, the intrinsic features of MOFs are outlined and their suitability to specific biomedical applications such as detoxification, drug and gas delivery, or as (combination) therapy platforms is discussed. Furthermore, relevant examples of how MOFs have been engineered and evaluated in different medical indications, including cancer, microbial, and inflammatory diseases is described. Finally, the challenges facing their translation into the clinic are critically examined, with the goal of establishing promising research directions and more realistic approaches that can bridge the translational gap of MOFs and MOF‐containing (nano)materials.Publisher PDFPeer reviewe

Cell-penetrating peptide-conjugated copper complexes for redox-mediated anticancer therapy

Metal-based chemotherapeutics like cisplatin are widely employed in cancer treatment. In the last years, the design of redox-active (transition) metal complexes, such as of copper (Cu), has attracted high interest as alternatives to overcome platinum-induced side-effects. However, several challenges are still faced, including optimal aqueous solubility and efficient intracellular delivery, and strategies like the use of cell-penetrating peptides have been encouraging. In this context, we previously designed a Cu(II) scaffold that exhibited significant reactive oxygen species (ROS)-mediated cytotoxicity. Herein, we build upon the promising Cu(II) redox-active metallic core and aim to potentiate its anticancer activity by rationally tailoring it with solubility- and uptake-enhancing functionalizations that do not alter the ROS-generating Cu(II) center. To this end, sulfonate, arginine and arginine-rich cell-penetrating peptide (CPP) derivatives have been prepared and characterized, and all the resulting complexes preserved the parent Cu(II) coordination core, thereby maintaining its reported redox capabilities. Comparative in vitro assays in several cancer cell lines reveal that while specific solubility-targeting derivatizations (i.e., sulfonate or arginine) did not translate into an improved cytotoxicity, increased intracellular copper delivery via CPP-conjugation promoted an enhanced anticancer activity, already detectable at short treatment times. Additionally, immunofluorescence assays show that the Cu(II) peptide-conjugate distributed throughout the cytosol without lysosomal colocalization, suggesting potential avoidance of endosomal entrapment. Overall, the systematic exploration of the tailored modifications enables us to provide further understanding on structure-activity relationships of redox-active metal-based (Cu(II)) cytotoxic complexes, which contributes to rationalize and improve the design of more efficient redox-mediated metal-based anticancer therapy

Copper(II) N, N, O -Chelating Complexes as Potential Anticancer Agents

Altres ajuts: Acord transformatiu CRUE-CSICThree novel dinuclear Cu(II) complexes based on a N,N,O-chelating salphen-like ligand scaffold and bearing varying aromatic substituents (−H, −Cl, and −Br) have been synthesized and characterized. The experimental and computational data obtained suggest that all three complexes exist in the dimeric form in the solid state and adopt the same conformation. The mass spectrometry and electron paramagnetic resonance results indicate that the dimeric structure coexists with the monomeric form in solution upon solvent (dimethyl sulfoxide and water) coordination. The three synthesized Cu(II) complexes exhibit high potentiality as ROS generators, with the Cu(II)/Cu(I) redox potential inside the biological redox window, and thus being able to biologically undergo Cu(II)/Cu(I) redox cycling. The formation of ROS is one of the most promising reported cell death mechanisms for metal complexes to offer an inherent selectivity to cancer cells. In vitro cytotoxic studies in two different cancer cell lines (HeLa and MCF7) and in a normal fibroblast cell line show promising selective cytotoxicity for cancer cells (IC50 about 25 μM in HeLa cells, which is in the range of cisplatin and improved with respect to carboplatin), hence placing this N,N,O-chelating salphen-like metallic core as a promising scaffold to be explored in the design of future tailor-made Cu(II) cytotoxic compounds

Tunable polymeric micelles for taxane and corticosteroid co-delivery

Nanomedicine holds promise for potentiating drug combination therapies. Increasing (pre)clinical evidence is available exemplifying the value of co-formulating and co-delivering different drugs in modular nanocarriers. Taxanes like paclitaxel (PTX) are widely used anticancer agents, and commonly combined with corticosteroids like dexamethasone (DEX), which besides for suppressing inflammation and infusion reactions, are increasingly explored for modulating the tumor microenvironment towards enhanced nano-chemotherapy delivery and efficacy. We here set out to develop a size- and release rate-tunable polymeric micelle platform for co-delivery of taxanes and corticosteroids. We synthesized amphiphilic mPEG-b-p(HPMAm-Bz) block copolymers of various molecular weights and used them to prepare PTX and DEX single- and double-loaded micelles of different sizes. Both drugs could be efficiently co-encapsulated, and systematic comparison between single- and co-loaded formulations demonstrated comparable physicochemical properties, encapsulation efficiencies, and release profiles. Larger micelles showed slower drug release, and DEX release was always faster than PTX. The versatility of the platform was exemplified by co-encapsulating two additional taxane-corticosteroid combinations, demonstrating that drug hydrophobicity and molecular weight are key properties that strongly contribute to drug retention in micelles. Altogether, our work shows that mPEG-b-p(HPMAm-Bz) polymeric micelles serve as a tunable and versatile nanoparticle platform for controlled co-delivery of taxanes and corticosteroids, thereby paving the way for using these micelles as a modular carrier for multidrug nanomedicine. Graphical abstract: [Figure not available: see fulltext.

Effect of Radical Polymerization Method on Pharmaceutical Properties of Π Electron-Stabilized HPMA-Based Polymeric Micelles

Polymeric micelles are among the most extensively used drug delivery systems. Key properties of micelles, such as size, size distribution, drug loading, and drug release kinetics, are crucial for proper therapeutic performance. Whether polymers from more controlled polymerization methods produce micelles with more favorable properties remains elusive. To address this question, we synthesized methoxy poly(ethylene glycol)-b-(N-(2-benzoyloxypropyl)methacrylamide) (mPEG-b-p(HPMAm-Bz)) block copolymers of three different comparable molecular weights (∼9, 13, and 20 kDa), via both conventional free radical (FR) and reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization. The polymers were subsequently employed to prepare empty and paclitaxel-loaded micelles. While FR polymers had relatively high dispersities (Đ ∼ 1.5-1.7) compared to their RAFT counterparts (Đ ∼ 1.1-1.3), they formed micelles with similar pharmaceutical properties (e.g., size, size distribution, critical micelle concentration, cytotoxicity, and drug loading and retention). Our findings suggest that pharmaceutical properties of mPEG-b-p(HPMAm-Bz) micelles do not depend on the synthesis route of their constituent polymers

Ultrasound-directed enzyme-prodrug therapy (UDEPT) using self-immolative doxorubicin derivatives

Background: Enzyme-activatable prodrugs are extensively employed in oncology and beyond. Because enzyme concentrations and their (sub)cellular compartmentalization are highly heterogeneous in different tumor types and patients, we propose ultrasound-directed enzyme-prodrug therapy (UDEPT) as a means to increase enzyme access and availability for prodrug activation locally. Methods: We synthesized β-glucuronidase-sensitive self-immolative doxorubicin prodrugs with different spacer lengths between the active drug moiety and the capping group. We evaluated drug conversion, uptake and cytotoxicity in the presence and absence of the activating enzyme β-glucuronidase. To trigger the cell release of β-glucuronidase, we used high-intensity focused ultrasound to aid in the conversion of the prodrugs into their active counterparts. Results: More efficient enzymatic activation was observed for self-immolative prodrugs with more than one aromatic unit in the spacer. In the absence of β-glucuronidase, the prodrugs showed significantly reduced cellular uptake and cytotoxicity compared to the parent drug. High-intensity focused ultrasound-induced mechanical destruction of cancer cells resulted in release of intact β-glucuronidase, which activated the prodrugs, restored their cytotoxicity and induced immunogenic cell death. Conclusion: These findings shed new light on prodrug design and activation, and they contribute to novel UDEPT-based mechanochemical combination therapies for the treatment of cancer

Monitoring EPR Effect Dynamics during Nanotaxane Treatment with Theranostic Polymeric Micelles

Cancer nanomedicines rely on the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect for efficient target site accumulation. The EPR effect, however, is highly heterogeneous among different tumor types and cancer patients and its extent is expected to dynamically change during the course of nanochemotherapy. Here the authors set out to longitudinally study the dynamics of the EPR effect upon single- and double-dose nanotherapy with fluorophore-labeled and paclitaxel-loaded polymeric micelles. Using computed tomography-fluorescence molecular tomography imaging, it is shown that the extent of nanomedicine tumor accumulation is predictive for therapy outcome. It is also shown that the interindividual heterogeneity in EPR-based tumor accumulation significantly increases during treatment, especially for more efficient double-dose nanotaxane therapy. Furthermore, for double-dose micelle therapy, tumor accumulation significantly increased over time, from 7% injected dose per gram (ID g–1) upon the first administration to 15% ID g–1 upon the fifth administration, contributing to more efficient inhibition of tumor growth. These findings shed light on the dynamics of the EPR effect during nanomedicine treatment and they exemplify the importance of using imaging in nanomedicine treatment prediction and clinical translation

Novel Cu(II) complexes bearing N,O-donor heteroaromatic ligands as potential anticancer drugs. A redox-active metallic core

Durant els darrers 30 anys, Ru, Ir, Pd, Fe o Cu han emergit com a alternatives prometedores en substitució als fàrmacs que contenien platí, que presentaven importants efectes secundaris. Especialment a la darrera dècada, els complexos de coure han despertat interès com a agents terapèutics. El coure és un metall essencial, present en moltes de les proteïnes del nostre cos, jugant un paper crucial en els processos bioquímics que es porten a terme. Concretament, dos aspectes han fet del coure un metall d’interès de cara a la teràpia contra el càncer: el fet de ser un metall endogen -fet que hauria de comportar menys efectes secundaris que un d’exogen com el platí- i el seu parell redox Cu(II)/Cu(I) -que s’ha descrit capaç de generar espècies reactives d’oxigen (EROs). Aquestes EROs poden danyar l’ADN i causar la mort cel·lular. A més, el fet que les cèl·lules canceroses tinguin un nivell d’EROs superior a les cèl·lules sanes apareix com una possibilitat per tal d’aconseguir una teràpia més selectiva. La primera part de la tesi es basa en la síntesi, caracterització i l’estudi de l’activitat biològica d’un complex de Cu(II) dinuclear que conté un lligand N,O-donador (L), especialment dissenyat per a promoure una ràpida conversió Cu(II)/Cu(I). Els assajos biològics en cultius cel·lulars mostren una alta producció d’EROs en línies cel·lulars HeLa, i que el complex té més toxicitat en cèl·lules canceroses que en sanes. En aquesta primera part, les interaccions amb ADN i proteïnes també s’han avaluat. A partir d’aquest punt de partida, el lligand L s’ha funcionalitzat amb grups halogenats per tal de modular el potencial redox del parell Cu(II)/Cu(I). La presència de grups electroatraients pretén facilitar la reducció del Cu(II) a Cu(I). De totes maneres, els complexos corresponents mostren certs problemes de solubilitat. En aquest sentit, la segona part de la tesi es centra en la derivatització del lligand L per tal de millorar la seva solubilitat i biodisponibilitat. Per això, s’aborden dues estratègies principals. La primera es basa a derivatitzar el lligand amb grups sulfonat i arginina, mantenint el mateix entorn de coordinació al voltant del coure. La segona estratègia es centra essencialment en millorar la internalització cel·lular, per tal d’incrementar la toxicitat del corresponent complex, amb la funcionalització del lligand amb pèptids rics en arginina, d’alta capacitat penetrant. Finalment, la darrera part d’aquest treball obre la porta a l’ús d’una plataforma dendrítica multimodal com a futur sistema de transport de fàrmacs. S’ha estudiat la seva capacitat de coordinació de coure i la seva potencialitat com a plataforma d’administració de fàrmacs. A partir d’aquí, també s’ha aconseguit ancorar la plataforma al lligand L, i procedir a la seva complexació com a prova de concepte d’aquest sistema de cara a futures teràpies dirigides.Depuis une trentaine d’années, le Ru, l’Ir, le Pd, le Fe ou le Cu sont apparus comme des alternatives prometteuses pour remplacer les médicaments contenant du platine, et qui ont montré des effets secondaires importants. En particulier au cours des dix dernières années, les complexes de cuivre ont suscité l’intérêt en tant qu’agents thérapeutiques. Le cuivre est un métal essentiel, présent dans de nombreuses protéines de notre corps et joue un rôle crucial dans les processus biochimiques. Plus précisément, deux aspects ont fait du Cu un métal d’intérêt pour le traitement du cancer : le fait qu’il s’agisse d’un métal endogène, et qui devrait par conséquent avoir moins d’effets secondaires que les complexes de métaux exogènes comme le platine ; et le couple redox Cu(II)/Cu(I) rapporté comme pouvant générer des espèces réactives de l’oxygène (EROs). Ces EROs peuvent endommager l’ADN et provoquer la mort cellulaire. Ce fait apparaît comme une possibilité de traitement sélectif. La première partie de la thèse est basée sur la synthèse, la caractérisation et l’étude de l’activité biologique d’un complexe dinucléaire de Cu(II) contenant un ligand N,O-donneur (L), spécialement conçu pour promouvoir une conversion rapide Cu(II)/Cu(I). Les tests en culture cellulaire montrent une forte production d’EROs dans les lignées de cellules HeLa et montrent aussi que le complexe a plus de toxicité au sein des cellules cancéreuses que dans les cellules saines. Dans cette première partie, les interactions avec l’ADN et les protéines ont été également évaluées. À partir de ce point de départ, le ligand L a été fonctionnalisé avec des groupes halogénés afin de moduler le potentiel rédox du couple Cu(II)/Cu(I). La présence de groupes attracteur d’éléctrons vise à faciliter la réduction de Cu(II) en Cu(I). Cependant, tous les complexes correspondants présentent certains problèmes de solubilité. En ce sens, la deuxième partie de la thèse porte sur la dérivatisation du ligand L afin d’améliorer sa solubilité et sa biodisponibilité. deux stratégies principales sont alors abordées : La première est basée sur la fonctionnalisation du ligand avec des groupes sulfonate et arginine, en maintenant le même environnement de coordination autour du cuivre. La deuxième stratégie vise essentiellement à améliorer l’internalisation cellulaire, afin d’augmenter la toxicité du complexe correspondant, avec la dérivatisation du ligand avec des peptides riches en arginine (rapportés pour avoir une haute capacité de pénétration intra cellulaire). Enfin, la dernière partie de ce travail ouvre la porte à l’utilisation d’une plateforme dendritique multimodale pour être utilisé comme futur système d’administration de médicaments. Sa capacité de coordination du cuivre et son potentiel en tant que plateforme d’administration de médicaments ont été étudiés. À partir de là, on a été également capable d’ancrer la plateforme dans le ligand L et de procéder à sa complexation avec cuivre, comme preuve de concept de ce système pour son utilisation dans de futures thérapies dirigées.During the last 30 years, Ru, Ir, Pd, Fe or Cu have appeared as promising alternatives to overcome the drawbacks encountered with Pt anticancer compounds. Beyond all of them, and mainly during the last decade, Cu complexes have awakened strong interest as therapeutic agents. Two features make Cu attractive to be used in chemotherapy: its nature as an endogenous metal —which may imply fewer side effects than other exogenous metals- and its Cu(II)/Cu(I) redox pair —which can promote reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation. The production of ROS is not only reported to cause cellular damage, but also to offer a putative discrimination between healthy and non-healthy cells. On the first part of this thesis work, we report the synthesis, characterization and biological evaluation of a dimeric Cu(II) complex bearing a N,O-donor salphen-like ligand ((E)-N-(2-(2-hydroxybenzylideneamino)phenyl)acetamide, L1) specifically designed to promote a fast Cu(II)/Cu(I) redox interconversion. In vitro assays outline the high potentiality of the complex to undergo ROS generation inside HeLa cells, and that it shows higher cytotoxicity in cancer than in normal cell lines. Besides, its interactions with some proteins have also been tested, showing that the formed protein-complex adducts do not represent any loss of biological activity respect to the complex itself. From this promising starting point, the Cu(II) complex of L1 ([Cu(L1)]2) serves as the backbone for the synthesis of two -chloro and -bromo analogs. The presence of electrowithdrawing groups intend to tune the redox behavior of the corresponding Cu(II) complexes, and concomitantly, their ROS generation capabilities. However, one of the main drawbacks faced with these two halogen-derived complexes was their poor solubility and bioavailability. Therefore, several functionalization strategies have been explored to overcome it. The first strategy aimed at increasing the solubility while maintaining the same Cu(II) coordination environment, i.e., the high redox activity observed for the initial [Cu(L1)]2 complex. In light of this, a sulfonate group and an Arginine residue have been selected based on their pKa and biological relevance. Secondly, and in order to enhance the delivery of the complex and the candidacy as future anticancer drug, specific improvement on the cellular uptake -ergo, on the cytotoxicity- has been attained by derivatizing [Cu(L1)]2 with two specific Arginine-rich Cell-Penetrating Peptides. Finally, the last part of our work opens the gate to the use of a versatile multimodal dendritic platform as a promising drug carrier. Its potentiality in drug delivery and its copper coordination capabilities have been thoroughly demonstrated. The conjugation approach of the [Cu(L1)]2 complex to the platform is also reported as a proof-of-concept of the versatility of this system for future tailor-made anticancer targeted therapies