A compact source condition for modelling focused fields using the pseudospectral time-domain method

The pseudospectral time-domain (PSTD) method greatly extends the physical volume of biological tissue in which light scattering can be calculated, relative to the finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) method. We have developed an analogue of the total-field scattered-field source condition, as employed in FDTD, for introducing focussed illuminations into PSTD simulations. This new source condition requires knowledge of the incident field, and applies update equations, at a single plane in the PSTD grid. Numerical artifacts, usually associated with compact PSTD source conditions, are minimized by using a staggered grid. This source condition's similarity with that used by the FDTD suggests a way in which existing FDTD codes can be easily adapted to PSTD codes

A compact source condition for modelling focused fields using the pseudospectral time-domain method

The pseudospectral time-domain (PSTD) method greatly extends the physical volume of biological tissue in which light scattering can be calculated, relative to the finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) method. We have developed an analogue of the total-field scattered-field source condition, as employed in FDTD, for introducing focussed illuminations into PSTD simulations. This new source condition requires knowledge of the incident field, and applies update equations, at a single plane in the PSTD grid. Numerical artifacts, usually associated with compact PSTD source conditions, are minimized by using a staggered grid. This source condition's similarity with that used by the FDTD suggests a way in which existing FDTD codes can be easily adapted to PSTD codes

Full wave model of image formation in optical coherence tomography applicable to general samples

We demonstrate a highly realistic model of optical coherence tomography, based on an existing model of coherent optical microscopes, which employs a full wave description of light. A defining feature of the model is the decoupling of the key functions of an optical coherence tomography system: sample illumination, light-sample interaction and the collection of light scattered by the sample. We show how such a model can be implemented using the finite-difference time-domain method to model light propagation in general samples. The model employs vectorial focussing theory to represent the optical system and, thus, incorporates general illumination beam types and detection optics. To demonstrate its versatility, we model image formation of a stratified medium, a numerical point-spread function phantom and a numerical phantom, based upon a physical three-dimensional structured phantom employed in our laboratory. We show that simulated images compare well with experimental images of a three-dimensional structured phantom. Such a model provides a powerful means to advance all aspects of optical coherence tomography imaging

Full wave model of image formation in optical coherence tomography applicable to general samples

We demonstrate a highly realistic model of optical coherence tomography, based on an existing model of coherent optical microscopes, which employs a full wave description of light. A defining feature of the model is the decoupling of the key functions of an optical coherence tomography system: sample illumination, light-sample interaction and the collection of light scattered by the sample. We show how such a model can be implemented using the finite-difference time-domain method to model light propagation in general samples. The model employs vectorial focussing theory to represent the optical system and, thus, incorporates general illumination beam types and detection optics. To demonstrate its versatility, we model image formation of a stratified medium, a numerical point-spread function phantom and a numerical phantom, based upon a physical three-dimensional structured phantom employed in our laboratory. We show that simulated images compare well with experimental images of a three-dimensional structured phantom. Such a model provides a powerful means to advance all aspects of optical coherence tomography imaging

A model of optical coherence tomography image formation based on Maxwell's equations

The majority of existing models of image formation in optical coherence tomography make simplifying assumptions. For example, those based on the extended Huygens-Fresnel formalism make the first-order Born approximation and consider ensemble average, rather than deterministic, scatterer distributions. Monte Carlo solutions of the radiative transport equation also consider ensemble average scatterer distributions and do not explicitly model interferometric detection. Although such models have been successful in answering many questions, there is a growing number of applications where the ability to predict image formation based upon a full wave treatment is needed, including, for example, image formation in turbid tissue. Such a rigorous model of image formation, based upon three-dimensional solutions of Maxwell's equations offers a number of tantalising opportunities. For example, shedding light on image formation for features near or below the resolution of an optical coherence tomography system, allowing for full wave inverse scattering methods to be developed and providing gold standard verification of quantitative imaging techniques. We have developed the first such model and will present simulated B-scans and C-scans, the principal features of our model, and comparisons of experimental and simulated image formation for phantoms

Assessment of human burn scars with optical coherence tomography by imaging the attenuation coefficient of tissue after vascular masking

The formation of burn-scar tissue in human skin profoundly alters, among other things, the structure of the dermis. We present a method to characterize dermal scar tissue by the measurement of the near-infrared attenuation coefficient using optical coherence tomography (OCT). To generate accurate en face parametric images of attenuation, we found it critical to first identify (using speckle decorrelation) and mask the tissue vasculature from the three-dimensional OCT data. The resulting attenuation coefficients in the vasculature-masked regions of the dermis of human burn-scar patients are lower in hypertrophic (3.8±0.4 mm-1) and normotrophic (4.2±0.9 mm-1) scars than in contralateral or adjacent normal skin (6.3±0.5 mm-1). Our results suggest that the attenuation coefficient of vasculature-masked tissue could be used as an objective means to assess human burn scars

Strain estimation in phase-sensitive optical coherence elastography

We present a theoretical framework for strain estimation in optical coherence elastography (OCE), based on a statistical analysis of displacement measurements obtained from a mechanically loaded sample. We define strain sensitivity, signal-to-noise ratio and dynamic range, and derive estimates of strain using three methods: finite difference, ordinary least squares and weighted least squares, the latter implemented for the first time in OCE. We compare theoretical predictions with experimental results and demonstrate a ~12 dB improvement in strain sensitivity using weighted least squares compared to finite difference strain estimation and a ~4 dB improvement over ordinary least squares strain estimation. We present strain images (i.e., elastograms) of tissue-mimicking phantoms and excised porcine airway, demonstrating in each case clear contrast based on the sample's elasticity

Quantitative Compression Optical Coherence Elastography as an Inverse Elasticity Problem

Quantitative elasticity imaging seeks to retrieve spatial maps of elastic moduli of tissue. Unlike strain, which is commonly imaged in compression elastography, elastic moduli are intrinsic properties of tissue, and therefore, this approach reconstructs images that are largely operator and system independent, enabling objective, longitudinal, and multisite diagnoses. Recently, novel quantitative elasticity imaging approaches to compression elastography have been developed. These methods use a calibration layer with known mechanical properties to sense the stress at the tissue surface, which combined with strain, is used to estimate the tissue's elastic moduli by assuming homogeneity in the stress field. However, this assumption is violated in mechanically heterogeneous samples. We present a more general approach to quantitative elasticity imaging that overcomes this limitation through an efficient iterative solution of the inverse elasticity problem using adjoint elasticity equations. We present solutions for linear elastic, isotropic, and incompressible solids; however, this method can be employed for more complex mechanical models. We retrieve the spatial distribution of shear modulus for a tissue-simulating phantom and a tissue sample. This is the first time, to our knowledge, that the iterative solution of the inverse elasticity problem has been implemented on experimentally acquired compression optical coherence elastography data

Analysis of image formation in optical coherence elastography using a multiphysics approach

Image formation in optical coherence elastography (OCE) results from a combination of two processes: the mechanical deformation imparted to the sample and the detection of the resulting displacement using optical coherence tomography (OCT). We present a multiphysics model of these processes, validated by simulating strain elastograms acquired using phase- sensitive compression OCE, and demonstrating close correspondence with experimental results. Using the model, we present evidence that the approximation commonly used to infer sample displacement in phase-sensitive OCE is invalidated for smaller deformations than has been previously considered, significantly affecting the measurement precision, as quantified by the displacement sensitivity and the elastogram signal-to-noise ratio. We show how the precision of OCE is affected not only by OCT shot-noise, as is usually considered, but additionally by phase decorrelation due to the sample deformation. This multiphysics model provides a general framework that could be used to compare and contrast different OCE techniques

Quantifying the influence of Bessel beams on image quality in optical coherence tomography

Light scattered by turbid tissue is known to degrade optical coherence tomography (OCT) image contrast progressively with depth. Bessel beams have been proposed as an alternative to Gaussian beams to image deeper into turbid tissue. However, studies of turbid tissue comparing the image quality for different beam types are lacking. We present such a study, using numerically simulated beams and experimental OCT images formed by Bessel or Gaussian beams illuminating phantoms with optical properties spanning a range typical of soft tissue. We demonstrate that, for a given scattering parameter, the higher the scattering anisotropy the lower the OCT contrast, regardless of the beam type. When focusing both beams at the same depth in the sample, we show that, at focus and for equal input power and resolution, imaging with the Gaussian beam suffers less reduction of contrast. This suggests that, whilst Bessel beams offer extended depth of field in a single depth scan, for low numerical aperture (NA  0.95), superior contrast (by up to ~40%) may be obtained over an extended depth range by a Gaussian beam combined with dynamic focusing