Op soek na 'n adekwate linguistiese teorie vir die begronding van die leksikografieteorie en - praktyk - die kognitiewe grammatika as 'n moontlike alternatief

English Title: In Search of an Adequate Linguistic Theory for Lexicographical Theory and Praxis - Cognitive Grammar as a Possible AlternativeEnglish AbstractVarious researchers have suggested, and occasionally demonstrated, that cognitive grammar offers a more viable alternative for lexicography than most traditional and structuralist linguistic theories. This paper addresses a number of basic issues in this regard, viz. the role of linguistic theories in lexicography as a scientific praxis, the adequacy of linguistic theories from a lexicographical point of view and the adequacy and viability of cognitive grammar as one such alternative to traditional and structuralist linguistic theories.Keywords: metalexicography, practical lexicography, theoretical adequacy, cognitive semantics, prototype theory, polysemy, lexicographical definitions, metaphor, metonymy, homonymy, synonymy, motivatio

Effects of ruminally protected methionine and/or phenylalanine on performance of high producing Holstein cows fed rations with very high levels of canola meal

Canola meal is the second largest protein feed in the Northern latitudes and inclusion levels in dairy rations are expected to increase due to projected large increases in production of canola seed in Canada. However, a recent study (Swanepoel et al. 2014) showed that even though higher inclusions of canola meal (CM) had a positive effect on production when CM directly substituted for high protein corn based dried distillers grains (DDG), that there was an optimum point at 120 to 135 g/kg of diet dry matter (DM) after which animal performance seemed to decline. Only the amino acids (AA), methionine (Met), phenylalanine (Phe) and leucine (Leu) could have limited production based upon plasma AA concentrations at the highest CM inclusion level. Our objective was to determine if either Met or Phe, or both, was limiting performance of early lactation dairy cows fed a ration containing 180 g/kg of diet DM as CM, by supplementing a calculated target of 7.5 g of intestinally absorbable Phe/cow/d and/or 8.0 g of intestinally absorbable Met/cow/d in ruminally protected (RP) forms to four pens of ~320 early lactation cows/pen in a 4 x 4 Latin square with 28 d experimental periods. Dry matter intake was not affected (avg: 27.6 +/- 0.4 kg/d) by feeding either of the RP AA, or the combination. Phenylalanine supplementation alone had no effect on milk production or composition, and body condition score (BCS) change compared to Control. Supplemental Met alone modestly increased (P<0.01) milk protein and fat content, while decreasing (P<0.01) milk lactose content and yield, but with no impact on BCS change compared to Control. Combination Met and Phe supplementation decreased milk and lactose yields, as well as lactose content (P<0.01), while increasing milk protein content and the BCS change (P<0.01). Urine volume (avg: 16.7 +/- 0.31 L/d) and flow of microbial protein (MCP) from the rumen (avg: 2092 +/- 52.7 g CP/d) were not affected by any treatment. Plasma Met levels increased (P<0.01) with both Met treatments and plasma tryptophan (Trp) levels decreased (P<0.01) with both Phe treatments. However, plasma Phe levels did not change with any treatment. Results are interpreted to suggest that delivery of Met with RP Met feeding was higher than animal requirements and caused an oversupply of Met. Addition of Phe to the Met supplementation changed the way energy was utilized by the cows, redirecting energy liberated by Met from milk components toward BCS gain. It remains unclear if Phe was limiting in the Control ration or if RP Phe was not fed at high enough levels to have a measurable response on production. However, it is clear that AA limitations, requirements and production responses are governed by much more than plasma AA levels. Results further suggest that AA are bioactive metabolites to the extent that they can change animal performance, even when they are not „limiting‟ per se, and that their supplementation to practical dairy cattle diets should be approached with extreme caution for this reason. Keywords: Spot urine purine; Estimated microbial flow; Plasma amino acids; Protein feeding. Abbreviations: AA, amino acid; ADF, acid detergent fiber; ADICP, AD insoluble CP; ADIN, acid detergent insoluble N; AL, allantoin; aNDF, amylase-treated NDF; aNDFom, aNDF free of residual ash; BCS, body condition score; BCAA, branched-chain AA; BW, body weight; CM, canola meal; CP, crude protein; CR, creatinine; DC305, DairyComp 305 management system; DDG, dried distillers grains; DHIA, Dairy Herd Improvement Association; DIM, days in milk; DM, dry matter; MCP, microbial CP; NDF, neutral detergent fiber; NEL, net energy for lactation; OM, organic matter; PD, purine derivatives; RDP, rumen degradable CP; RP, rumen protected; SCC, somatic cell count; SG, specific gravity; TMR, total mixed ration; TP, true protein.http://www.elsevier.com/locate/anifeedsci2016-07-31hb2016Animal and Wildlife Science

Rumen microbial protein flow and plasma amino acid concentrations in early lactation multiparity Holstein cows fed commercial rations, and some relationships with dietary nutrients

Common contemporary diet formulation methods involve factorial or empirical models which simulate ruminal fermentation and post ruminal absorption to predict nutrient supply and needs. However, due to their inability to encompass all animal factors that affect digestion and absorption, metabolic models inadequately predict microbial protein (MCP) synthesis in the rumen and passage of nutrients such as protein and amino acids (AA) to the small intestine. Practical and simple on-farm methods to obtain “real time” values directly from cows are required to establish normal ranges of MCP flow from the rumen and plasma AA concentrations on commercial dairy farms. Urine purine derivative (PD) output, an index of MCP supply to the intestine when analyzed in spot urine samples, can accurately predict MCP flow from the rumen under farm conditions. Blood sampling from the tail vein is easily performed on commercial dairy farms and concentrations of free AA in these plasma samples, representative of intestinally absorbed AA, can be used as an index to predict limiting AA. A group of 20 commercial dairy farms, milking 2677 + 372 cows either 2 or 3 times a day were selected and one of their early lactation pens holding 255 + 20 cows were used to represent the range of nutritional strategies and rations fed to California dairy cows. On the day of sampling, one load of early lactation total mixed ration (TMR) was sampled and 20 pre-selected cows were body condition scored (BCS). Directly after scoring, the 4 cows with the highest, and the 4 cows with the lowest BCS values were removed to collect 12 tail vein blood samples from the group with average BCS scores. Spot urine samples were collected from all voluntarily urinating cows (retaining 6 to 12 samples/pen to match the characteristics of the cows pre-selected for BCS scoring and blood sampling). Most rations contained alfalfa hay, corn silage, almond hulls, corn dried distillers grains, corn grain, cottonseed, canola meal (solvent) and a mineral premix. Selected cow groups produced 45 ± 1.2 kg milk/day at 73 ± 0.5 days in milk with a BCS of 2.6 + 0.04 at 2.8 lactations. There were no correlations between MCP and milk production, but MCP flow from the rumen was correlated to organic matter and neutral detergent fiber content of the TMR (P<0.01 and P=0.03 respectively). Plasma AA concentrations were correlated with rumen undegradable crude protein (CP) and starch content of the TMR, with many inter-correlations among AA, but no plasma AA concentration was correlated to milk production. Results show that 8 urine samples and 6 blood samples/group provided accurate representation of the group. This study documents ranges of MCP flowing from the rumen (1703 ± 54.6 g CP/day), and plasma AA levels (with low variation within AA), in early lactation multiparity Holstein cows fed a range of contemporary dairy rations with multiple ingredient profile combinations. Since farms selected were well managed operations with cow groups selected to represent averages in early lactation, this data can be used as a benchmark for high, low and mean levels of MCP flow, and plasma AA concentrations, as well as provide real time evaluation of rations to identify possible rumen microbial growth and/or absorbable AA issues in commercial dairy cows.http://www.elsevier.com/locate/livsci2017-08-31hb2016Animal and Wildlife Science

Impacts of adding ruminally protected phenylalanine to rations containing high levels of canola meal on performance of high producing Holstein cows

Even though studies supplementing Phe to dairy cattle are rare, it has been identified as limiting in corn silage based rations, after Lys and Met, as well as being important to the mammary gland for overall milk production. Since canola meal (CM) is low in Phe, plasma Phe concentrations decrease as more CM is included in dairy rations. A previous study fed 7.5 g/cow/day of intestinally absorbable Phe, but results suggested that it was insufficient to support increased milk production since it was primarily used to support increased body condition score (BCS; Swanepoel et al., 2015). Our objective was to determine if supplementing 15 g/cow/day of intestinally absorbable Phe in a ruminally protected (RP) form (HCMP) to a ration containing 170 g/kg CM (HCM) would support increased milk production after fulfilling its apparent 1st priority of restoring previously mobilized peptides to muscle protein synthesis, thereby regaining animal performance possibly lost with higher dietary CM inclusion levels (i.e., 130 g/kg (LCM) to 165 g/kg (HCM)) based upon Swanepoel et al. (2015). Ruminally protected Met (2.0 g/cow/day intestinally absorbable) was added as part of the treatment ration to HCM treatments to avoid a possible Met limitation. The experimental design was a 3 x 3 Latin square using 3 pens of ~315 early lactation cows/pen with three 21 day periods. Dry matter (DM) intake was not affected (avg: 27.5 ± 0.5 kg/day) by feeding RP Phe and there was no impact of treatment on milk and component yields, except a reduced lactose content (P=0.02) with Phe addition. Even though plasma Phe levels only differed numerically between treatments, its supplementation resulted in energy being diverted towards BCS gain as in Swanepoel et al. (2015), but not at the expense of milk components, suggesting that higher Phe supplementation supplied enough Phe to replace mobilized muscle protein while maintaining milk production. The lack in change of plasma Phe concentrations could be due to extensive catabolization by the liver or hepatic conversion of Phe to Tyr, which is supported by the change in plasma Tyr concentrations. Interestingly, addition of Phe to the HCM ration increased whole tract neutral- and acid detergent fiber digestibility. Perhaps Phe released into the rumen when Phe was fed stimulated fibrolytic bacteria through a direct impact on microbes of free Phe, which has previously been shown to enhance growth and/or capabilities of cellulolytic bacteria. Total net energy output decreased with HCM feeding, but was restored to the level of the LCM ration for the HCMP treatment suggesting that further investigation to determine if an even higher Phe supplementation level may have additional benefits on milk production may have merit.http://www.elsevier.com/locate/anifeedsci2017-06-30hb2016Animal and Wildlife Science

Determining the optimal ratio of canola meal and high protein dried distillers grain protein in diets of high producing Holstein dairy cows

Use of canola meal (CM) and dried corn distillers grains with solubles (DDGS) as major supplemental protein sources are common practice in North American dairy rations and usage of both is projected to increase in the future. Since limited data is available on performance of cows fed diets with different ratios of CM and DDGS, our objective was to determine the optimal ratio of CM to DDGS protein in a contemporary lactation dairy ration by feeding combinations of CM and high protein DDG (HPDDG) to early lactation multiparity dairy cows. The experiment was a 4×4 Latin square with 28 d periods using four pens of ∼320 high producing cows/pen. Treatments were created by varying the amounts of CM and HPDDG added on a DM basis to be: (1) 0 g/kg CM and 200 g/kg HPDDG, (2) 65 g/kg CM and 135 g/kg HPDDG, (3) 135 g/kg CM and 65 g/kg HPDDG, (4) 200 g/kg CM and 0 g/kg HPDDG. Dry matter intake was not affected by the CM/HPDDG ratio in the ration. Milk and lactose yield, true protein (TP) content and yield, milk fat yield as well as milk energy output increased at a decreasing rate with a higher CM/HPDDG ratio. Maximum values for milk and TP yield were at ∼135 g/kg CM, while lactose, TP content and milk energy were maximized at ∼120 g/kg CM inclusion. Milk fat content and milk energy density decreased linearly with higher CM inclusion. Body condition score change responded quadratically with the highest gain at ∼120 g/kg CM inclusion. The purine derivative to creatinine index increased linearly with higher CM inclusion levels, suggesting that microbial protein production (MCP) was limited in the 0 g/kg CM ration and was progressively stimulated by higher feeding levels of CM. Plasma AA levels suggest that the reduction in lysine in dietary protein, together with the decrease in MCP production, resulted in a substantial reduction in lysine available for milk production, thereby limiting performance in the higher HPDDG ration. The only AA which decreased in plasma with higher CM feeding levels were phenylalanine, leucine and methionine. That the level of leucine in the plasma was still decreasing linearly, while methionine and phenylalanine responded quadratically at the 200 g/kg CM treatment, was interpreted to suggest that the leucine supply remained higher than its requirement at the highest CM inclusion level, but that phenylalanine and/or methionine was limiting production in the highest CM ration. Overall, results suggest that the optimum ratio of CM to HPDDG in these diets was with 120–135 g/kg of diet DM from CM.http://www.elsevier.com/locate/anifeedscihj201

Polymorphism: an evaluation of the potential risk to the quality of drug products from the Farmácia Popular Rede Própria

Polymorphism in solids is a common phenomenon in drugs, which can lead to compromised quality due to changes in their physicochemical properties, particularly solubility, and, therefore, reduce bioavailability. Herein, a bibliographic survey was performed based on key issues and studies related to polymorphism in active pharmaceutical ingredient (APIs) present in medications from the Farm&#225;cia Popular Rede Pr&#243;pria. Polymorphism must be controlled to prevent possible ineffective therapy and/or improper dosage. Few mandatory tests for the identification and control of polymorphism in medications are currently available, which can result in serious public health concerns

Amino acid needs of lactating dairy cows : predicting limiting amino acids in contemporary rations fed to high producing dairy cattle in California using metabolic models

The objectives were to predict aminoa cid (AA) profiles of intestinally delivered protein in California high group (i.e., lactating but not yet confirmed to be in calf) dairy cattle fed contemporary rations using three metabolic models of dairy cows. This was done in order to predict limiting AA in dairy rations to determine if there was enough consistency in the nutrient profiles of these rations to support a common ruminally protected (RP) AA package to supplement similar rations. Nutrient profiles of 16 commercial high group dairy cow rations were evaluated, and limiting AA predicted by the metabolic models ‘Amino Cow’, ‘CPM Dairy’ and ‘Shield’. Higher inclusion levels of corn products in rations increased the contribution of corn CP to the total CP content of the total mixed ration (TMR), from 0.20 to 0.40. Even though the lysine to methionine ratio decreased as more corn CP was included in the TMR, it did not have a major impact on the final predicted AA profile of metabolizable protein (MP), but MP delivery (g/d)to the duodenum was predicted to decrease with increased corn CP levels. None of the models predicted any affect of increased corn CP levels on milk components but, according to Shield, it did have an effect on milk yield which increased when the ratio of lysine to methionine in MP decreased. The sequence of AA limitation among rations was the same within model, but differed substantially among models. Methionine, isoleucine and lysine were predicted to be most limiting according to Amino Cow, CPM Dairy and Shield, respectively. There appears to be sufficient consistency in nutrient profiles among rations to support a ruminally protected AA complex to balance the model predicted AA profile in order to increase animal productivity and efficiency of utilization of nutrients. There is no absolute way to decide which model predictions are most correct. However because Shield predictions suggested a higher correlation between Lys and Metin MP and production, as well as predicted AA ratios to milk responses related to these ratios, use of the Shield predicted AA package is supported

Production responses of high producing Holstein cows to ruminally protected phenylalanine and tyrosine supplemented to diets containing high levels of canola meal

Phenylalanine (Phe) was first identified as a potentially limiting amino acid (AA) in lactating dairy cows in 1974. There is the possibility that conversion of Phe to tyrosine (Tyr) is not efficient enough to supply all Tyr requirements for milk production in high producing dairy cows, thereby suggesting that Tyr itself could become a functionally limiting AA when it, and/or Phe, is not supplied to the mammary gland in adequate quantities. Our objective was to determine if previous positive responses of lactating cows to Phe supplementation when fed a diet containing high levels of canola meal (CM) could be improved by supplying Tyr in place of some Phe. The experimental design was a 4 × 4 Latin square using 4 pens of ∼315 early lactation multiparous cows/pen with four 21 d periods. Diets were formulated to include a low CM treatment (LCM) containing CM at ∼120 g CM/kg dry matter (DM) and a high CM treatment (HCM) with CM at ∼170 g CM/kg DM. The other two treatments were the HCM diet, but with Phe (HCM + P) or Phe plus Tyr (HCM + PT) added in a ruminally protected (RP) form. The DM intake tended (P = 0.10) to decline, but milk yield did not differ, between the LCM and HCM treatments, while milk fat, lactose and energy output was lower (P < 0.02) with the HCM treatment, and body condition score (BCS) gain was enhanced (P < 0.01). Adding Phe to the HCM diet had little impact on milk and component yields, but a positive BCS gain of 0.056 units/28 d decreased (P < 0.01) to a loss of 0.025 units. Substitution of half the added Phe with Tyr lowered (P < 0.05) milk and milk lactose yields while further lowering (P < 0.01) the BCS loss to 0.080 units/28 d. While differences among diets in plasma AA concentrations were small, adding Phe to the HCM diet increased (P = 0.05) plasma Phe and Ala (P = 0.02), but plasma Phe only tended (P = 0.09) to decline when Tyr partially replaced Phe to create the HCM+PT diet. Contrary to expectations based upon prior studies, increased CM inclusion from 120 to 170 g/kg DM only modestly decreased overall animal performance. While it is clear that supplementation of Phe, or Phe plus Tyr, to the HCM diet was not necessary, the unexpected and substantive negative effects of Phe or Phe plus Tyr on overall animal performance suggests that the bioactivity of these AA is highly important, while highlighting the risks of supplementing AA that are not required.http://www.elsevier.com/locate/anifeedsci2019-09-01hj2018Animal and Wildlife Science