Bilan des transferts verticaux d'eau en zone non-saturée sous climat soudano-sahélien: application à l'estimation de la recharge des nappes

Une estimation précise de la recharge des nappes est indispensable pour une gestion optimale des ressources en eaux souterraines. Plusieurs méthodes ont été mises au point en région soudano-sahélienne pour son évaluation, méthodes conduisant à des résultats très disparates compte tenu de la variabilité des propriétés du milieux et de la conception même des outils d'évaluation utilisés. Le travail présenté est une contribution à l'amélioration de la compréhension de la dyna- mique hydrique à l'échelle d'une parcelle.A partir d'un dispositif de mesure tensio-neutronique installé aussi bien dans le sol non remanié que dans des lysimètres constitués de sols reconstruits sur une profondeur de 7 m, une étude qualitative et quantitative de ces mécanismes d'infiltration et d'évaporation dans les niveaux d'altération des roches cristallines constituant la zone non-saturée, a été menée sur un site expérimental de l'École Inter-États d'Ingénieurs de l'Équipement Rural (EIER) à Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso).Elle a permis de: - localiser et décrire la dynamique de l'eau dans les différentes tranches de sol concernées par les processus d'humectation et d'assèchement; - estimer la profondeur de reprise de l'eau par évaporation et les quantités d'eau mises en jeu à différentes profondeurs; - réévaluer la réserve en eau du sol, c'est-à-dire la lame d'eau qu'il faut restituer au sol avant qu'il y ait recharge, en tenant compte de la profondeur d'échange entre le sol et l'atmosphère. Les résultats montrent que cette réserve, généralement calculée sur des bases agro-pédologiques, est très sous-estimée pour des applications hydrogéologiqueA reliable estimation of the recharge rate of an aquifer is a prerequisite for the efficient management of the groundwater resources. A variety of methods for recharge estimation in Sudano-Sahelian areas are available, but most of them do not take into account all mechanisms of water transfer in the unsaturated zone; as a result, the estimated recharge values for a given region are often dissimilar.Field equipment was used to measure water content and capillary tension at various depths in the unsaturated zone at an experimental site at Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, in order to study infiltration and evaporation processes. Several water content profiles and water tension profiles were used to determine mass balances and water fluxes. The calculation of the head gradients allows the determination of flow direction.This study, carried out both in deep lysimeters (7 m) and on undisturbed soil over two years, has allowed:- A description of water dynamics at different soil depths.       The soil can be divided into three parts. The water movement (infiltration and evaporation) takes place in the upper part of the soil. Its extension reaches 2.5 m depth. Drainage at this depth could not be measured and can be neglected. Below this zone, the water movements are very slow. The water content is constant over time and is equal to about 22%. The third zone, which lies between 5.5 m and groundwater table (7 m depth) is influenced by the groundwater table fluctuations. - An estimation of the depth at which water can be taken up by evapotranspiration and of the amount of this water at different depths.       This depth is equal to 2.5 to 3 m under our experimental conditions (soil and climatic conditions). At the end of the dry period, about 180 mm water has been extracted from the soil by evaporation: 50 mm from the first meter, 100 mm between 1 m and 2 m depth and 20 mm for the last 50 cm. - A reevaluation of the effective minimum soil capacity by taking into account the soil-plant- atmosphere exchange depth.       The results show that this effective minimum soil capacity, usually calculated on an agricultural basis, is under-estimated for hydrogeologic purposes. The hydrodynamic behavior of the lysimeters and the undisturbed soil are similar. Under the studied climate conditions and soil hydrodynamic properties, groundwater recharge by direct infiltration can be neglected

1994). Réflexions sur la modélisation de la propagation de polluants dans les hydrosystèmes souterrains

Les modèles de simulation de propagation de polluants dans les eaux souterraines sont de plus en plus utilisés comme outils de gestion de cette ressource. La qualité des simulations dépend étroitement des connaissances que l'on a des processus et des paramètres de transport nécessaires à la mise en application des modèles. La fiabilité des résultats repose sur: - le choix du bon modèle en fonction de l'échelle d'observation - la mesure des paramètres représentatifs du transport liée à l'échelle de discrétisation du site - la spatialisation de mesures locales. Compte tenu des spécificités des hydrosystèmes souterrains (invisibilité, accès coûteux), la connaissance du milieu restera trop fragmentaire pour réaliser des simulations fines. Seules les approches stochastiques permettent alors d'intégrer ces incertitudes dans les simulations.Groundwater quality modelling has become a tool for water management. The accuracy of the simulations closely depends on the available knowledge concerning the transport processes and the parameters used in the model. The accuracy of the results depends on the choice ofa suitable model adapted to the observation scale, the measurement of the effective parameters linked to the discretization of the field and the spatialization of the local measurements.The mathematical model used to describe mass transport in porous media is the dispersion-convection equation. The velocity is calculated by solving the flow equation. For heterogeneous media, numerical schemes which simultaneously solve heads and velocities have to be preferred to classical finite element or finite differences techniques. The dispersion coefficient represents the velocity fluctuations around the average velocity. Therefore, it strongly depends on the dimension and the scale of the discretization.A predictive simulation of the Twin Lake Tracer Test experiment has been done. After a very fine calibration of the flow (differences between measured and calculated heads less than 1 cm), the transport simulation did not succeed. The headgradients were not calculated with enough accuracy and the simulated plume travelled in a wrong direction.Due to the nature of groundwater (invisible, expensive rneasurements), knowledge of the structure of the aquifer will always be too incomplete to perform very detailed simulations. Stochastic computations may be the way to take into account uncertainities in groundwater modening

Comparison of light transmission and reflection techniques to determine concentrations in flow tank experiments

Transmissive and reflective intensity measurements for visual concentration determinations in 2D flow tank experiments were compared and evaluated for their applicability in the study of flow and transport phenomena. A density-dependent heterogeneous flow experiment was conducted and transmission and reflection images of the dyed saltwater plume were analyzed. A single light source and dark curtains forced the light to pass through the porous media only, thus facilitating the transmission measurements. The reflection images delivered a more homogeneous spatial illumination than the transmission images. Major perturbations of the transmission images were lens flare effects and light dispersion within the bead-water-Plexiglas system which smear the front of the plume. Based on the conducted evaluation of transmissive and reflective intensity measurements, the reflection data delivered more reliable intensity values to derive solute concentrations in intermediate scale flow tank experiment

Impact hydrochimique d'une ballastière en eau sur les eaux souterraines

La notion d'impact d'une ballastière en eau sur la qualité des eaux souterraines comporte deux aspects : impact naturel et impact artificiel dû à une pollution accidentelle. L'évaluation de ces deux types d'impact a été menée pour deux ballastières de l'aquifère rhénan alsacien. Dans ce but, la qualité des eaux des deux ballastières profondes - l'une abandonnée, l'autre exploitée - du site pilote expérimental de la Wantzenau, au nord de Strasbourg, a fait l'objet d'une surveillance particulière. Des échantillons d'eau ont également été prélevés dans des piézomètres situés en amont et en aval immédiats des ballastières. Aucun des deux étangs ne constitue une source de dégradation de la qualité des eaux souterraines aval, dont une partie est captée à des fins d'alimentation en eau potable à 300 mètres des berges aval de ces ballastières. Le risque de la pollution accidentelle d'une nappe par ballastière interposée demeure au contraire un problème préoccupant. Une modélisation mathématique des échanges hydrochimiques entre nappe et ballastières a alors été mise en oeuvre, sur le cas de la Wantzenau. L'étalonnage préalable du modèle utilisé a été réalisé pour le traceur chlorure. La réussite de cette première étape a autorisé la simulation de divers cas de contaminations "fictives" de la qualité des eaux captées pour l'alimentation en eau potable.A gravel pit can exert two different types of hydrochemical impacts on downstream groundwaters : a nature impact and an artificial impact caused by accidental pollution.The first impact was studied in the case of gravel pits of the Rhenan Alsatian aquifer. The water quality of two deep graves pits (one of them is still exploited) was closely observed in the experimental field at la Wantzenau (north eastern France, north of Strasbourg).The artificial impact was simulated with a mathematical modelisation. Water samples of gravel pits and upstream and downstream groundwaters were analysed. As a result, the presence of the gravel pits does not after the downstream groundwater quality. In particular, no influence was observed on the quality of water pumped at a station situated 300 meters away from the gravel pits.On the contrary, the accidental pollution of an aquifer - from or through - a gravel pit remains quite a problem. A mathematical modelisation of the hydrochemical exchanges between the aquifer and the gravel pits was set up. The preliminary adjustment of the model was carried out on the propagation of the chloride ion, which behaves as a natural tracer. The issue of this first step authorized a simulation of different cases of fictitious chemical contamination of the water pumped at the station

Simultaneous estimation of groundwater recharge and hydrodynamic parameters for groundwater flow modeling

International audienc

ANN-based approach for the estimation aquifer pollutant source behaviour

The problem of identifying an unknown pollution source in polluted aquifers, based on known contaminant concentrations measurement, is part of the broader group of issues, called inverse problems. This paper investigates the feasibility of solving the groundwater pollution inverse problem by using artificial neural networks (ANNs). The approach consists first in training an ANN to solve the direct problem, where the pollutant concentration in a set of monitoring wells is calculated for a known pollutant source. Successively, the trained ANN is frozen and it is used to solve the inverse problem, where the pollutant source is calculated which corresponds to a set of concentrations in the monitoring wells. The approach has been applied for a real case which deals with the contamination of the Rhine aquifer by carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) due to a tanker accident. The obtained results are compared with the solution obtained with a different approach retrieved from literature. The results show the suitability of ANNs-based methods for solving inverse non-linear problems

Étude expérimentale des transferts d'eau provoqués par l'irrigation sur une parcelle en moyenne vallée du fleuve Sénégal

Alors que l'irrigation paraît être le recours essentiel face aux besoins croissants de la population mondiale en céréales, la dégradation des sols et des eaux annihile presque totalement les efforts d'aménagement. Aussi l'étude de la dégradation des sols dans la moyenne vallée du fleuve Sénégal constitue l'un des quatre objectifs du pôle de recherches sur les systèmes irrigués sahéliens qui regroupe quatre pays dont le Mali, la Mauritanie, le Niger et le Sénégal. Le suivi de l'évolution des eaux et des sols sous culture apparaît indispensable pour garantir une agriculture irriguée rentable et durable dans la zone. Dans cette région, les risques de dégradation des sols font suite à l'effet de deux processus de dégradation que sont l'alcalinisation et la salinisation des sols. Ces types de dégradation sont fortement corrélés à la remontée des nappes d'eaux souterraines. Dans cet article, l'étude des transferts d'eau dans les parcelles irriguées par le biais d'un suivi expérimental " in situ " met en évidence les relations existantes entre les eaux d'irrigation et les mouvements de la nappe. L'étude a permis une meilleure compréhension de la dynamique hydrique au sein de la parcelle : saturation du profil et processus de recharge de la nappe. Elle a également permis de montrer que les échanges avec la nappe pendant la période d'irrigation sont négligeables. Cette pratique de la riziculture inondée, entraîne une variation de stock importante qui représente plus de 40% des apports et qui se traduit par une remontée de nappe de près de 2 mètres.Whereas irrigation appears to be the main approach to satisfy the growing worldwide demand for cereal, soil and water degradation continues to be an on-going problem in agriculture development. One of the main four concerns of the regional group for research on Sahelian irrigated systems (including Mali, Mauritania, Niger and Senegal) is soil degradation in the middle Senegal River valley. These soils are subject to various forms of degradation, mainly from salinisation and/or alkalinisation. These degradation processes are strongly correlated with water table dynamics, with water level fluctuations being significant. Therefore, to guarantee sustainable development of irrigated agriculture in the area, irrigation must be coupled with complete and permanent monitoring of soil and water quality.In this paper, we present a complete study concerning water transfer in irrigated plots and its effects on the groundwater table. The experimental site is located in the Podor region, at 16°.37'N, 14°.52'W in the Donaye irrigated area. The surface area is about 50 ha. Water supply is assured by filling a main channel using a group of pumps on the Doué River. Irrigation of the parcels is performed with siphons from this channel. The experimental plot of 0.33 ha is used for an underwater rice crop. One or two rice crop production harvests are made every year, with the decision been taken by the farmers. There is no drainage system in the area.The experimental plot was equipped with 8 piezometers located along a stream line. One is situated between the plot and the river in order to study the water movements caused by the exchange between the groundwater and the water in the river. Three are situated in the plot, one close to the Doué River, one in the middle of the plot and one near a dam, which is the opposite boundary compared to the river. Four other piezometers are located beyond the dam to estimate groundwater input and output at this boundary. Five tensiometers at 20, 40, 60, 95 and 135 cm depth are placed close to the piezometers located in the plot. Four water content profiles were measured during the irrigation period at depths 20, 40, 60 95 and 135 cm and the irrigation was performed over 84 days.The water table level variations at 2 meters were recorded. The groundwater inflow decreased during the first part of the irrigation period due to infiltration below the irrigated experimental plot. This inflow increased during a second period due to water level variations in the river close to this site. At the output, the head gradient did not vary appreciably and the outflow was assumed to be constant during the observation period. Moreover, this gradient is quite low and the flow rate is very low. The water content and pressure profiles clearly show the infiltration of water in the soil during irrigation. The head gradients show the water movement in the unsaturated soil during infiltration and evaporation. Upward flow due to evaporation is observed at about 10 days after irrigation. The last measured water profile (76 days after the end of irrigation) shows that evaporation modifies the water content profile until at least a depth of 120 cm.The water balance during the irrigation period showed that the input due to irrigation and precipitation was equal to 4150 m3. The evapotranspiration output was estimated to be 2370 m3. Groundwater exchange at the downstream boundary can be neglected during the duration of irrigation (84 days), since the average hydraulic gradient remained low (less than 0.8 %) and the hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer was not important (about 250 cm/day). It was assumed that the water storage quantified with the rise of the groundwater level was equal to the difference between surface input and evapotranspiration (more than 40 % of the contributions), leading to a 27 % change in water content, which is quite reasonable for this type of soil (clay).The stored water was then recovered by evapotranspiration and groundwater outflow at the plot boundaries. We are away from a reasonable irrigation that would reduce the used water quantity and decrease the risk of soil degradation. This study allows a better understanding of the water dynamics in the experimental plot, which includes soil saturation, recharge processes, and exchanges between the aquifer and the river

Characterization of reciprocity gaps from interference tests in fractured media through a dual porosity model

We analyze drawdown reciprocity gaps emerging in interference tests performed in a confined fissured karstic formation. Modeling the system as a dual porosity continuum allows characterizing the dynamics of the relative contribution of the connected fractures and the rock matrix to the total flow rate extracted at the pumping wells. Observed lack of reciprocity of drawdowns can then be linked to the occurrence of processes that are not accounted for in the classical flow models based on a single-continuum representation of the system through flow equations grounded on Darcy's law only. We show that interpreting the system as a dual porosity continuum can cause drawdown reciprocity gaps to emerge as a consequence of local effects associated with an identifiable contribution of the matrix to the total fluid extracted at the well location during pumping. These theoretical results are then employed to identify the contribution to the flow being supplied to the pumping well by the low conductivity matrix constituting the host rock formation, in contrast to that provided by the fractures. An application to data from two interference tests performed at the Hydrogeological Experimental Site (HES) in Poitiers, France, illustrates the approach. We show that, whenever the matrix is assumed to provide a contribution to the total flow rate extracted, nonreciprocity is expected, the latter being linked to the occurrence of a differential drawdown between fracture and matrix at the pumping well. This difference decreases with time in the example presented, displaying a power law late time behavior, with nonreciprocity effects persisting up to remarkably long times

Use of Global Sensitivity Analysis and Polynomial Chaos Expansion for Interpretation of Non-reactive Transport Experiments in Laboratory-Scale Porous Media

International audienceIn this work, we show how the use of global sensitivity analysis (GSA) in conjunction with the polynomial chaos expansion (PCE) methodology can provide relevant information for the interpretation of transport experiments in laboratory-scale heterogeneous porous media. We perform GSA by calculating the Sobol indices, which provide a variance-based importance measure of the effects of uncertain parameters on the output of a chosen interpretive transport model. The choice of PCE has the following two benefits: (1) it provides the global sensitivity indices in a straightforward manner, and (2) PCE can serve as a surrogate model for the calibration of parameters. The coefficients of the PCE are computed by probabilistic collocation. The methodology is applied to two nonreactive transport experiments available in the literature, while considering both transient and pseudo steady state transport regimes. This method allows a rigorous investigation of the relative effects and importance of different uncertain quantities, which include boundary conditions as well as porous medium hydraulic and dispersive parameters. The parameters that are most relevant to depicting the system's behavior can then be evaluated. In addition, one can assess the space-time distribution of measurement points, which is the most influential factor for the identifiability of parameters. Our work indicates that these methods can be valuable tools in the proper design of model-based transport experiments

Three-dimensional hydrogeological parametrization using sparse piezometric data

When modelling contamination transport in the subsurface and aquifers, it is crucial to assess the heterogeneities of the porous medium, including the vertical distribution of the aquifer parameter. This issue is generally addressed thanks to geophysical investigations. As an alternative, a method is proposed using estimated hydraulic parameters from a 2D calibrated flow model (solely reliant on piezometric series) as parametrization constraints for a 3D hydrogeological model. The methodology is tested via a synthetic model, ensuring full knowledge and control of its structure. The synthetic aquifer is composed of five lithofacies, distributed according to a sedimentary pattern, and functions in an unconfined regime. The level of heterogeneity for hydraulic conductivity spans 3 orders of magnitude. It provides the piezometric chronicles used to inverse 2D flow parameter fields and the lithological logs used to interpolate the 3D lithological model. Finally, the parameters of each facies (hydraulic conductivity and porosity) are obtained through an optimization loop, which minimizes the difference between the 2D calibrated transmissivity and the transmissivity computed with the estimated 3D facies parameters. The method estimates values close to the known parameters, even with sparse piezometric and lithological data sampling. The maximal discrepancy is 45 % of the known value for the hydraulic conductivity and 6 % for the porosity (mean error 26 % and 3 %, respectively). Although the methodology does not prevent interpolation errors, it succeeds in reconstructing flow and transport dynamics close to the control data. Due to the inherent limitations of the 2D inversion approach, the method only applies to the saturated zone at this point.</p