Astroglial excitability and gliotransmission: an appraisal of Ca2+ as a signalling route

Astroglial cells, due to their passive electrical properties, were long considered subservient to neurons and to merely provide the framework and metabolic support of the brain. Although astrocytes do play such structural and housekeeping roles in the brain, these glial cells also contribute to the brain's computational power and behavioural output. These more active functions are endowed by the Ca2+-based excitability displayed by astrocytes. An increase in cytosolic Ca2+ levels in astrocytes can lead to the release of signalling molecules, a process termed gliotransmission, via the process of regulated exocytosis. Dynamic components of astrocytic exocytosis include the vesicular-plasma membrane secretory machinery, as well as the vesicular traffic, which is governed not only by general cytoskeletal elements but also by astrocyte-specific IFs (intermediate filaments). Gliotransmitters released into the ECS (extracellular space) can exert their actions on neighbouring neurons, to modulate synaptic transmission and plasticity, and to affect behaviour by modulating the sleep homoeostat. Besides these novel physiological roles, astrocytic Ca2+ dynamics, Ca2+-dependent gliotransmission and astrocyte–neuron signalling have been also implicated in brain disorders, such as epilepsy. The aim of this review is to highlight the newer findings concerning Ca2+ signalling in astrocytes and exocytotic gliotransmission. For this we report on Ca2+ sources and sinks that are necessary and sufficient for regulating the exocytotic release of gliotransmitters and discuss secretory machinery, secretory vesicles and vesicle mobility regulation. Finally, we consider the exocytotic gliotransmission in the modulation of synaptic transmission and plasticity, as well as the astrocytic contribution to sleep behaviour and epilepsy

Cytosolic Ca2+ spikes evoked by the thiol reagent thimerosal in both intact and internally perfused single pancreatic acinar cells

Cytosolic calcium signals evoked by the sulphydryl-group-oxidising agent, thimerosal, have been investigated in acutely isolated pancreatic acinar cells. Two techniques were employed for the assessment of the cytosolic free-calcium concentration ([Ca2+]i): measurement of calcium-dependent chloride and non-specific cation currents (whole-cell patch-clamp recording) and microfluorimetry (fura-2). Thimerosal (0.5–100 mgrM) evoked repetitive spikes in both chloride and cation currents as seen by patch-clamp recording, and in [Ca2+]i as seen by microfluorimetry, with a latency of 1–3 min. The response increased in magnitude over time and was not reversed on removal of thimerosal. The thimerosal-induced spikes were reversibly blocked by 2 mM dithiothreitol and by 20 mM caffeine. Inclusion of heparin (200 mgrg/ml) in the pipette solution blocked the thimerosal-induced spikes. The calcium spikes continued after the removal of extracellular calcium; however, low concentrations of thimerosal (0.5–5 mgrM) were unable to initiate a current response in the absence of external calcium. High concentrations of thimerosal (50–100 mgrM) could initiate spikes without extracellular calcium. Thimerosal, at concentrations that failed to produce an independent effect, potentiated the acetylcholine-evoked oscillations in [Ca2+]i. We conclude that thimerosal is able to mobilise calcium from an intracellular store; the blockade by heparin may indicate that thimerosal exerts an action on the inositol trisphosphate pathway. The dependence on extracellular calcium for initiation, but not for continuation of the thimerosal-induced calcium spikes suggests that thimerosal may have the additional effect of inhibiting the plasma membrane calcium ATPase