Variation of Pollutant Levels in Vegetables: A Case Study of

There is growing public concern over the illegal cultivation of vegetables on soils amended with sewage sludge or irrigated with mixtures of sewage and sewage sludge. Effluents and wastewater from Bidii in Kitale treatment plant are used by vegetable farmers for the irrigation of their vegetables during dry season. These effluents may contain some toxic pollutants which bioaccumulate along the food chain. Moreover the uptake of such toxic metals by vegetables is governed by their availability and concentration in the soil. Therefore such vegetables may accumulate pollutants in excessive amount in their various parts. This may ultimately, adversely affect humans and other species that depend on such crops for food, hence the need to evaluate the variation of pollutant levels in vegetables samples in these areas. Samples of spinach and kales and top soils (0-20) cm were collected from the vegetable farms of Bidii and Taito area as control point. Random sample collections were made five (5) times during the period from the two plots between October to December 2012. The vegetables samples were dried in an oven at 80°C for 72 h. The dry samples were crushed in a mortar  and pestle and the resulting powder digested by weighing 1.0 g of oven-dried ground and sieved (<1 mm) into an acid-washed porcelain crucible and placed in furnace for 4 hours at 500°C. The crucibles were removed and cooled. The weighed vegetable samples were transferred to 300 ml digesting flasks and then 27 ml of a mixture of HNO3 and concentrated H2SO4 were added to the sample. The mixture was heated on a hot plate for about half an hour until brown fumes disappeared. The mixture was cooled, and 3 ml of percloric acid were carefully added and then heating continued until white fumes disappeared. The digested sample was filtered into a 100 ml volumetric flask and made up to volume with de-ionized water. Soil samples were digested using aqua regia and 1.0 g of the soil sample was placed in a flask and 6 ml of concentrated nitric acid (HNO3) was added first before adding 18 ml of concentrated HCl. The mixture was then heated until a clear digest was obtained. The digest was then cooled and a few drops of water were added before filtering. The filtrate was then diluted with de-ionized water to 100 ml. The concentrations of heavy metals which include, Cu, Zn, Cr, and Pb, were determined using atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS). Levels of some anions (nitrate and phosphate were determined using Spectroscan 30 UV-Vis spectrophotometer. The results revealed that Cr and Pb had the highest concentrations, while Cu had the lowest in the leafy vegetables studied. The order of heavy metals was found to be Zn>Pb>Cr>Cu in soils while Pb>Zn>Cr>Cu in vegetables. The concentration of NO3- ranged between 2.176 mg/kg to 3.202 mg/kg while PO43- 2.897 mg/kg to 3.342 mg/kg in vegetables. Levels of NO3- in soils were 1.88 mg/kg to 2.06 mg/kg while PO43- had 4.66 mg/kg to 4.99 mg/kg. The vegetables from Bidii area contained much higher concentrations than those from Taito area. The levels of Cr and Pb in vegetables exceeded WHO Maximum Limit (0.05 mg/kg for Cr and 0.3 mg/kg for Pb). The variation in the parameters determined were found to be statistically significant (p<0.05) as determined by one way ANOVA. Key words: copper, lead, chromium, zinc, nitrates, phosphates, polluted soils, vegetables

Variation of Pollutant Levels in Vegetables: A Case Study of

There is growing public concern over the illegal cultivation of vegetables on soils amended with sewage sludge or irrigated with mixtures of sewage and sewage sludge. Effluents and wastewater from Bidii in Kitale treatment plant are used by vegetable farmers for the irrigation of their vegetables during dry season. These effluents may contain some toxic pollutants which bioaccumulate along the food chain. Moreover the uptake of such toxic metals by vegetables is governed by their availability and concentration in the soil. Therefore such vegetables may accumulate pollutants in excessive amount in their various parts. This may ultimately, adversely affect humans and other species that depend on such crops for food, hence the need to evaluate the variation of pollutant levels in vegetables samples in these areas. Samples of spinach and kales and top soils (0-20) cm were collected from the vegetable farms of Bidii and Taito area as control point. Random sample collections were made five (5) times during the period from the two plots between October to December 2012. The vegetables samples were dried in an oven at 80°C for 72 h. The dry samples were crushed in a mortar  and pestle and the resulting powder digested by weighing 1.0 g of oven-dried ground and sieved (<1 mm) into an acid-washed porcelain crucible and placed in furnace for 4 hours at 500°C. The crucibles were removed and cooled. The weighed vegetable samples were transferred to 300 ml digesting flasks and then 27 ml of a mixture of HNO3 and concentrated H2SO4 were added to the sample. The mixture was heated on a hot plate for about half an hour until brown fumes disappeared. The mixture was cooled, and 3 ml of percloric acid were carefully added and then heating continued until white fumes disappeared. The digested sample was filtered into a 100 ml volumetric flask and made up to volume with de-ionized water. Soil samples were digested using aqua regia and 1.0 g of the soil sample was placed in a flask and 6 ml of concentrated nitric acid (HNO3) was added first before adding 18 ml of concentrated HCl. The mixture was then heated until a clear digest was obtained. The digest was then cooled and a few drops of water were added before filtering. The filtrate was then diluted with de-ionized water to 100 ml. The concentrations of heavy metals which include, Cu, Zn, Cr, and Pb, were determined using atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS). Levels of some anions (nitrate and phosphate were determined using Spectroscan 30 UV-Vis spectrophotometer. The results revealed that Cr and Pb had the highest concentrations, while Cu had the lowest in the leafy vegetables studied. The order of heavy metals was found to be Zn>Pb>Cr>Cu in soils while Pb>Zn>Cr>Cu in vegetables. The concentration of NO3- ranged between 2.176 mg/kg to 3.202 mg/kg while PO43- 2.897 mg/kg to 3.342 mg/kg in vegetables. Levels of NO3- in soils were 1.88 mg/kg to 2.06 mg/kg while PO43- had 4.66 mg/kg to 4.99 mg/kg. The vegetables from Bidii area contained much higher concentrations than those from Taito area. The levels of Cr and Pb in vegetables exceeded WHO Maximum Limit (0.05 mg/kg for Cr and 0.3 mg/kg for Pb). The variation in the parameters determined were found to be statistically significant (p<0.05) as determined by one way ANOVA. Key words: copper, lead, chromium, zinc, nitrates, phosphates, polluted soils, vegetables

Diffusion of Aspirin (ASA) Based Drugs in Sodium Hydroxide Solution at Ambient Temperature.

Diffusion is a macroscopic motion of components of a system that arises from concentration difference and plays a vital role in drug migration in the body governed by Fickian diffusion laws. This project considers effective mechanism leading to effective diffusion coefficient. The diffusion coefficient of aspirin based drugs was studied in basic NaOH of concentration range 0.01M to 0.1M and a relatively more concentrated set ranging from 0.1M to 1.0M were studied at 25oC. The study looks into the rate of diffusion of coated and non-coated aspirin drugs in aqueous NaOH solution designated different letter heads A, B, C, D, and E. The objective of this work was to determine the diffusion coefficients of aspirin drugs at different concentrations range at 25oC and to compare with those calculated from limiting ionic conductance at infinite dilution. The rate of diffusion was monitored by observing the boundary conditions of the indicator between the drug and solution. The problem statement is that there are various aspirin based drugs in the market and all have different amount of aspirin in them. The research sought to find out the rate of diffusion of the drugs and conclude if at all their values relate to their masses as per the diffusion law. In the study five (5) aspirin tablets collected from a local pharmacy in Eldoret town were used for the study. From the profile it was observed that as the time progressed the boundary increased fast for noncoated tablets compared to the coated ones. The boundary heights (x) at a time t and concentration are also recorded. The moving boundary method coefficients ranged from 2.780 x 10-6 cm2 sec-1 to 6.995 x 10-6 cm2 sec- 1, 2.196 x 10-6 cm2 sec-1 to 6.092 x 10-6 cm2 sec-1, 2.138 x 10-7 cm2 sec-1 to 6.576 x 10-7 cm2 sec-1 , 3.241 x 10-10 cm2 sec-1 to 1.617 x 10-10 cm2 sec-1 and 1.378 x 10-10 cm2 sec-1 to 2.172x 10-10 cm2 sec-1 for drugs aspirin A , B, C. D and E respectively. All the aspirin were found to give values according to Fickian mechanism. For the drug A (600mg) of aspirin the best value of diffusion coefficient of 6.995 x 10-6 cm2 sec-1 at concentrated solution and 2.780 x 10-6 cm2 sec-1 was observed at dilute range solutions while the values for coated drug E with 75 mg aspirin was found to be slightly lower. The fractional drug uptake is linear and independent of the sample of thickness when distance is plotted against time. A graph of x2 against time was plotted which was used to calculate the diffusion coefficient. The experimental values of diffusion coefficient Do were in close agreement with the expected value from infinite dilution which was a general estimation of diffusion coefficients. Quantitative data was analysed using analysis of variance and chi-square statistical. Data was presented using table and graphs. The study found that the aspirin drug with the highest diffusion coefficient is drug A. In addition, conductometric technique was recommended to give more accurate results and similar method should be constituted with the use of other techniques such as TLC and spectrophotometric method for comparison purposes with the free diffusion and it is important for manufacturers to revalidate steps in the production process, for any critical control point in the production process leads to hydrolysis of aspirin. Key words: Diffusion, Aspirin, Acetylsalicylic acid, Diffusion Coefficient, Sodium Hydroxide, Fickia

<i>Gaia</i> Data Release 1. Summary of the astrometric, photometric, and survey properties

Context. At about 1000 days after the launch of Gaia we present the first Gaia data release, Gaia DR1, consisting of astrometry and photometry for over 1 billion sources brighter than magnitude 20.7. Aims. A summary of Gaia DR1 is presented along with illustrations of the scientific quality of the data, followed by a discussion of the limitations due to the preliminary nature of this release. Methods. The raw data collected by Gaia during the first 14 months of the mission have been processed by the Gaia Data Processing and Analysis Consortium (DPAC) and turned into an astrometric and photometric catalogue. Results. Gaia DR1 consists of three components: a primary astrometric data set which contains the positions, parallaxes, and mean proper motions for about 2 million of the brightest stars in common with the HIPPARCOS and Tycho-2 catalogues – a realisation of the Tycho-Gaia Astrometric Solution (TGAS) – and a secondary astrometric data set containing the positions for an additional 1.1 billion sources. The second component is the photometric data set, consisting of mean G-band magnitudes for all sources. The G-band light curves and the characteristics of ∼3000 Cepheid and RR-Lyrae stars, observed at high cadence around the south ecliptic pole, form the third component. For the primary astrometric data set the typical uncertainty is about 0.3 mas for the positions and parallaxes, and about 1 mas yr−1 for the proper motions. A systematic component of ∼0.3 mas should be added to the parallax uncertainties. For the subset of ∼94 000 HIPPARCOS stars in the primary data set, the proper motions are much more precise at about 0.06 mas yr−1. For the secondary astrometric data set, the typical uncertainty of the positions is ∼10 mas. The median uncertainties on the mean G-band magnitudes range from the mmag level to ∼0.03 mag over the magnitude range 5 to 20.7. Conclusions. Gaia DR1 is an important milestone ahead of the next Gaia data release, which will feature five-parameter astrometry for all sources. Extensive validation shows that Gaia DR1 represents a major advance in the mapping of the heavens and the availability of basic stellar data that underpin observational astrophysics. Nevertheless, the very preliminary nature of this first Gaia data release does lead to a number of important limitations to the data quality which should be carefully considered before drawing conclusions from the data

A defect of sphingolipid metabolism modifies the properties of normal appearing white matter in multiple sclerosis

Maintaining the appropriate complement and content of lipids in cellular membranes is critical for normal neural function. Accumulating evidence suggests that even subtle perturbations in the lipid content of neurons and myelin can disrupt their function and may contribute to myelin and axonal degradation. In this study, we determined the composition and quantified the content of lipids and sterols in normal appearing white matter (NAWM) and normal appearing grey matter (NAGM) from control and multiple sclerosis brain tissues by electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry. Our results suggest that in active-multiple sclerosis, there is a shift in the lipid composition of NAWM and NAGM to a higher phospholipid and lower sphingolipid content. We found that this disturbance in lipid composition was reduced in NAGM but not in NAWM of inactive-multiple sclerosis. The pattern of disturbance in lipid composition suggests a metabolic defect that causes sphingolipids to be shuttled to phospholipid production. Modelling the biophysical consequence of this change in lipid composition of NAWM indicated an increase in the repulsive force between opposing bilayers that could explain decompaction and disruption of myelin structure

Male involvement in birth preparedness and complication readiness for emergency obstetric referrals in rural Uganda

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Every pregnant woman faces risk of life-threatening obstetric complications. A birth-preparedness package promotes active preparation and assists in decision-making for healthcare seeking in case of such complications. The aim was to assess factors associated with birth preparedness and complication-readiness as well as the level of male participation in the birth plan among emergency obstetric referrals in rural Uganda.</p> <p>Methods</p> <p>This was a cross-sectional study conducted at Kabale regional hospital maternity ward among 140 women admitted as emergency obstetric referrals in antenatal, labor or the postpartum period. Data was collected on socio-demographics and birth preparedness and what roles spouses were involved in during developing the birth plan. Any woman who attended antenatal care at least 4 times, received health education on pregnancy and childbirth danger signs, saved money for emergencies, made a plan of where to deliver from and made preparations for a birth companion, was deemed as having made a birth plan. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was conducted to analyze factors that were independently associated with having a birth plan.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>The mean age was 26.8 ± 6.6 years, while mean age of the spouse was 32.8 ± 8.3 years. Over 100 (73.8%) women and 75 (55.2%) of their spouses had no formal education or only primary level of education respectively. On multivariable analysis, Primigravidae compared to multigravidae, OR 1.8 95%CI (1.0-3.0), education level of spouse of secondary or higher versus primary level or none, OR 3.8 95%CI (1.2-11.0), formal occupation versus informal occupation of spouse, OR 1.6 95%CI (1.1-2.5), presence of pregnancy complications OR 1.4 95%CI (1.1-2.0) and the anticipated mode of delivery of caesarean section versus vaginal delivery, OR 1.6 95%CI (1.0-2.4) were associated with having a birth plan.</p> <p>Conclusion</p> <p>Individual women, families and communities need to be empowered to contribute positively to making pregnancy safer by making a birth plan.</p

Intimate partner violence among women with HIV infection in rural Uganda: critical implications for policy and practice

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a major public health problem in Africa and worldwide. HIV infected women face increased IPV risk. We assessed the prevalence and factors associated with IPV among HIV infected women attending HIV care in Kabale hospital, Uganda.</p> <p>Methods</p> <p>This cross-sectional study was conducted among 317 HIV infected women attending Kabale regional hospital HIV treatment centre, from March to December 2010. Participants were interviewed using an interviewer-administered questionnaire. Data was collected on socio-demographic variables, social habits, and IPV (using the abuse assessment screen and the Severity of Violence against Women Scale to identify physical, sexual and psychological violence). Characteristics of the participants who reported IPV were compared with those who did not. Multivariate logistic-regression analysis was conducted to analyze factors that were independently associated with IPV.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>The mean age of 317 respondents was 29.7 years. Twenty two (6.9%) were adolescents and 233 (73.5%) were married or cohabiting. The mean age of the spouse was 33.0 years.</p> <p>One hundred and eleven (35.0%) were currently on antiretroviral therapy. Lifetime prevalence of IPV (physical or sexual) was 36.6%. In the preceding 12 months, IPV (any type) was reported by 93 respondents (29.3%). This was physical for 55 (17.6%), and sexual /psychological for 38 (12.1%). On multivariate multinomial logistic regression analysis, there was a significant but inverse association between education level and physical partner violence (adjusted relative risk (ARR) 0.50, confidence limits (95% CI) 0.31-0.82, p-value = 0.007). There was a significant but inverse association between education level of respondent and sexual/psychological violence (ARR 0.47 95%CI (0.25-0.87), p-value = 0.017) Likewise, there was a significant inverse association between the education level of the spouse and psychological/sexual violence (ARR 0.57, 95% CI 0.25-0.90, p-value = 0.018). Use of antiretroviral therapy was associated with increased prevalence of any type of violence (physical, sexual or psychological) with ARR 3.04 (95%CI 1.15-8.45, p-value = 0.032).</p> <p>Conclusion</p> <p>Almost one in three women living with HIV had suffered intimate partner violence in the preceding 12 months. Nearly one in five HIV patients reported physical violence, and about one in every seven HIV patients reported sexual/psychological violence. Likewise, women who were taking antiretroviral drugs for HIV treatment were more likely to report any type of intimate partner violence (physical, sexual or psychological). The implication of these findings is that women living with HIV especially those on antiretroviral drugs should be routinely screened for intimate partner violence.</p

Systematic review of the magnitude and case fatality ratio for severe maternal morbidity in sub-Saharan Africa between 1995 and 2010

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Analysis of severe maternal morbidity (maternal near misses) provides information on the quality of care. We assessed the prevalence/incidence of maternal near miss, maternal mortality and case fatality ratio through systematic review of studies on severe maternal morbidity in sub-Saharan Africa.</p> <p>Methods</p> <p>We examined studies that reported prevalence/incidence of severe maternal morbidity (maternal near misses) during pregnancy, childbirth and postpartum period between 1996 and 2010. We evaluated the quality of studies (objectives, study design, population studied, setting and context, definition of severe acute obstetric morbidity and data collection instruments). We extracted data, using a pre-defined protocol and criteria, and estimated the prevalence or incidence of maternal near miss. The case-fatality ratios for reported maternal complications were estimated.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>We identified 12 studies: six were cross-sectional, five were prospective and one was a retrospective review of medical records. There was variation in the setting: while some studies were health facility-based (at the national referral hospital, regional hospital or various district hospitals), others were community-based studies. The sample size varied from 557 women to 23,026. Different definitions and terminologies for maternal near miss included acute obstetric complications, severe life threatening obstetric complications and severe obstetric complications. The incidence/prevalence ratio and case-fatality ratio for maternal near misses ranged from 1.1%-10.1% and 3.1%-37.4% respectively. Ruptured uterus, sepsis, obstructed labor and hemorrhage were the commonest morbidities that were analyzed. The incidence/prevalence ratio of hemorrhage ranged from 0.06% to 3.05%, while the case fatality ratio for hemorrhage ranged from 2.8% to 27.3%. The prevalence/incidence ratio for sepsis ranged from 0.03% to 0.7%, while the case fatality ratio ranged from 0.0% to 72.7%.</p> <p>Conclusion</p> <p>The incidence/prevalence ratio and case fatality ratio of maternal near misses are very high in studies from sub-Saharan Africa. Large differences exist between countries on the prevalence/incidence of maternal near misses. This could be due to different contexts/settings, variation in the criteria used to define the maternal near misses morbidity, or rigor used carrying out the study. Future research on maternal near misses should adopt the WHO recommendation on classification of maternal morbidity and mortality.</p