Deltamethrin mortality of flea populations sampling in Madagascar.

<p>Green bars represent sensitive populations, orange bars tolerant populations and red bars resistant populations (WHO definition).</p

The effect of parameters (X latitude and Y longitude: GPS localization of the sampling place; IRS: Indoor Residual Spraying which represent the number of insecticide interventions the population should underwent (Max: 1 per year) on KD50, KD90 and 24 hours survival rate of <i>Xenopsylla cheopis</i>.

<p>The effect of parameters (X latitude and Y longitude: GPS localization of the sampling place; IRS: Indoor Residual Spraying which represent the number of insecticide interventions the population should underwent (Max: 1 per year) on KD50, KD90 and 24 hours survival rate of <i>Xenopsylla cheopis</i>.</p

Mortality values of Xenopsylla cheopis populations to Deltamethrin in Madagascar.

<p>Mortality values of Xenopsylla cheopis populations to Deltamethrin in Madagascar.</p

Correlations results between the mortality values parameters and between the times spent by fleas in the insectariums (Pearson's correlation Test).

<p>Correlations results between the mortality values parameters and between the times spent by fleas in the insectariums (Pearson's correlation Test).</p

Factors related to human plague.

<p>According to <a href="http://www.plosntds.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pntd.0002382#pntd.0002382-Duplantier1" target="_blank">[3]</a>, <a href="http://www.plosntds.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pntd.0002382#pntd.0002382-Rahelinirina1" target="_blank">[14]</a>, <a href="http://www.plosntds.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pntd.0002382#pntd.0002382-Migliani1" target="_blank">[20]</a>, <a href="http://www.plosntds.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pntd.0002382#pntd.0002382-Boisier1" target="_blank">[27]</a>, <a href="http://www.plosntds.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pntd.0002382#pntd.0002382-Rahalison1" target="_blank">[28]</a>.</p

Plague transmission cycle.

<p>A) <i>Plague cycle in the rural area of Madagascar</i>. Rural plague foci of the highlands are organized into three habitats: houses (arrow), sisal hedges (arrowhead), and rice fields (star). The black rat, <i>R. rattus (3)</i>, is the main rodent involved in transmission associated with <i>X. cheopis (1)</i> and the endemic flea <i>S. fonquerniei (2)</i>. (Photo of plague foci: S. Rahelinirina). B) <i>Plague cycle in the urban areas of Madagascar</i>. Urban plague occurs mainly in the cities of Antananarivo (Isotry Market, left) <i>(7)</i> and Mahajanga (Abattoir suburb, right) <i>(6)</i>. <i>R. norvegicus (4)</i> and <i>X. cheopis (1)</i> are involved in each focus. The Asian shrew (<i>S. murinus</i>) <i>(5)</i> has long been suspected to play a major role in the epidemiological cycle of plague in Mahajanga. C) <i>Plague cycle in the forest area</i>. A sylvatic transmission occurs in Madagascar with <i>R. rattus (3)</i> and endemic micromammals (such as <i>Setifer setosus</i>) <i>(8)</i> as reservoirs. <i>S. fonquerniei (2)</i> is the major vector of the disease in this area. The role of other endemic fleas <i>(9)</i> is not yet determined. (Photo of forest of Ampahitra: S. Telfer; <i>Setifer setosus</i>: V. Soarimalala).</p

Fig 2 -

A) Neighbor-joining (NJ) tree reconstructed from the wsp sequences of Wolbachia isolates detected in various life stages (egg, larva & adult) of bed bug specimens we collected (beginning with AVC) and sequences from GenBank, B) Median-joining network analysis of wsp sequences for the same specimens.</p

Unrooted phylogenetic tree of <i>Wolbachia</i> 16S sequences belonging to specimens we collected (named AVC) and <i>Wolbachia</i> strains reported from diverse arthropod and helminth hosts collected from GenBank.

Unrooted phylogenetic tree of Wolbachia 16S sequences belonging to specimens we collected (named AVC) and Wolbachia strains reported from diverse arthropod and helminth hosts collected from GenBank.</p

Main vectors and rodent reservoirs in Madagascar.

<p>Fleas involved in plague transmission in Madagascar: <i>Synopsyllus fonquerniei</i> female <i>(1)</i> and <i>Synopsyllus fonquerniei</i> male <i>(3)</i> are found on outdoor rats, whereas <i>Xenopsylla cheopis</i> female <i>(2)</i> and <i>Xenopsylla cheopis</i> male <i>(4)</i> live on indoor rats. Rat species involved in plague transmission in Madagascar: <i>Rattus rattus (5)</i> and <i>Rattus norvegicus (6)</i>.</p

Haplotype diversity within 16S-rRNA and <i>wsp</i> fragments of <i>Wolbachia</i> in bed bug specimens.

Haplotype diversity within 16S-rRNA and wsp fragments of Wolbachia in bed bug specimens.</p