Food hygiene risks and related practices in central South African HIV/AIDS hospices : a qualitative assessment

Published ThesisPeople living with HIV are at risk of many life-threatening opportunistic infections, the majority of which are caused by exposure to unsafe drinking water and poor hygiene. In South Africa, hospices were established in response to the growing HIV/AIDS pandemic. Hospice is both a programme and a philosophy of care that is dedicated to improving the quality of life for patients with life-threatening illnesses. At the core of a hospice’s work is the concept of “palliative care”, which is defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) as the active total care of patients whose disease is not responsive to curative treatment, and whose goal is the achievement of the best quality of life for patients and their families. The need for palliative care in South Africa has increased with the escalation of HIV/AIDS. Moreover, resources to provide optimum quality healthcare in hospices are very limited. Food safety, synonymous with food hygiene, embraces all aspects of food processing, preparation and handling to ensure the safety thereof for consumption purposes. It has also been defined as the concept that food will not cause harm to the consumer when it is prepared and/or eaten according to the intended use. The meals prepared in a hospice have a remarkable associated safety risk, as they are prepared for vulnerable people who are more susceptible to foodborne illness than the rest of the population. During food preparation, micro-organisms can contaminate foods and storage environments, surfaces, tools, equipment and personnel engaged in handling and production activities (Clayton, Griffith, Price, Peters 2002 and Legnani, Leoni, Berveglieri, Mirolo and Alvaro 2003). Foodhandling practices in the domestic kitchen influence the risk of pathogen survival and multiplication, as well as cross-contamination to other products. Microbiological risk in the kitchen can be significantly reduced by preparing food properly. People, food and domestic animals, including water and bioaerosols, introduce pathogens continually into the home. these potential pathogens can enter the domestic kitchen via various routes, for example, raw foods and respiratory droplets. Various bacterial species can reside in the kitchen, food preparation rooms and storage facilities, and can be direct sources of food contamination. This is a particularly worrying issue for a hospice setting, where meals are prepared on a regular basis every day. Moreover, this is of great concern for a hospice set-up that has limited isolation facilities. This highlights the important role of food handlers in the transmission of foodborne infections, as the hands are probably the single most important transmission route. Consequently, the overall aim of the study was to assess food-related hygiene awareness and practices amongst hospice food handlers, and the associated food safety interventions. The study also identified the emerging food safety risks, including the antimicrobial susceptibility profile of potential foodborne pathogens isolated from the food preparation surfaces in the hospice kitchens and food handlers. In order to achieve this, the following objectives were defined for the study: to conduct an investigation into the hygiene awareness amongst staff of HIV/AIDS hospices using KAP (knowledge, attitudes and practices) as an information collection tool to characterise each hospice’s microbial profile; to compose and implement an intervention programme in selected hospices to improve the food safety awareness and practices; and, lastly, to evaluate the effectiveness of staff’s hygiene awareness and practice interventions. With regard to the KAP objective, it was found that the majority (68%) of the food handlers did not receive food safety training, whilst only 32% of the respondents had attended at least one formal training course on food hygiene. A descriptive survey of the food handlers’ knowledge regarding food safety demonstrated the equivalent of 66.8% correct answers. However, a substantial lack of knowledge regarding the correct temperature for a refrigerator, as well as hot, ready-to-eat food and cold, ready-to-eat food emerged. This was demonstrated by the fact that respectively only 39% and 32% of the respondents were informed about the correct holding temperature of hot and cold ready-to-eat food. Again, this shows that the food handlers in this study had insufficient knowledge regarding time temperature controls. Similar findings on the lack of adequate knowledge of food handlers regarding temperature controls have also been reported (Panchal, Bonhote and Dworkin 2013). This particular knowledge gap could possibly be attributed to a lack of training of food handlers in hospices on this important food-safety control measure. The majority (64%) of the respondents agreed that preparation of food in advance may contribute to the risk of food poisoning, whilst 68% of respondents were aware of the risks related to reheating dishes prior to consumption. To determine the antimicrobial susceptibility profile of the isolated foodborne pathogens, the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) was determined using the agar dilution method of the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI). It was noted with concern that the isolated microbial strains are becoming increasingly drug resistant. For example, a 100% resistance of Acinetobacter baumannii strains to cefoxitin was noted. Although gentamicin is one of the most important antibiotics used in combination with other antibiotics worldwide for the treatment of S. aureus infections, this antibiotic was predominantly inactive against S. aureus in this study, since 75% of the organisms were resistant (MIC >16, range ≤0.25 ->16 mg.ml-1). Oxacillin also proved to have poor activity against the isolated organisms (MIC50 and MIC90, 8 and >16, range (0.25->16 mg.ml-1) respectively. Transmission of antibioticresistant bacteria in hospices and other healthcare facilities could be due to overcrowding and poor hygiene. The development and provision of food safety training courses are important to achieve behavioural changes, coupled with an improvement in skills and knowledge. Focus groups were also conducted with hospice food handlers to explore their food safety management systems, and to identify perceived barriers to implementing food safety practices. The following barriers were identified: lack of management support, inadequate resources, and inconvenient location of the pantry from the kitchen. Suboptimal kitchen infrastructure was also identified as a hurdle to implement safe food-handling practices. In response to the increasing need to educate food handlers about their responsibilities for assuring the safety of food during preparation and handling, food handler training, based on the WHO’s Five Keys to Safer Foods, was implemented as an intervention programme. Before training, 32% of food handlers believed that the same cutting board can be used for raw and cooked foods, provided that it looks clean, whilst 73% of respondents, after receiving training, knew that this could hamper food safety. A hazard categorization tool was developed in the course of the study, and it comprises five focus areas: infrastructure, food preparation facilities, sanitation, food handler training and hospice management

Microbial hazards associated with food preparation in Central South African HIV/Aids hospices

Thesis (M. Tech.) -- Central University of Technology, Free State, 2010South Africa currently faces one of the highest HIV prevalence rates in the world. As this prevalence rises, the strain placed on its hospitals is likely to increase due to the shortage of beds. The devastating effects of HIV/AIDS initiated the establishment of a hospice which is a non-governmental organisation whose goal is the provision of care for terminally ill patients, either in their homes, in hospitals or in a hospice’s own in-patients wards. Part of the hospice’s mission is to offer palliative care without charge to anyone who requires it. The basic elements of hospice care include pain and symptom management, provision of support to the bereaving family and promoting a peaceful and dignified death. This also includes the provision of cooked foods to the patients using the kitchen facilities of the hospices for this activity. It is well known that the kitchen is particularly important in the spread of infectious disease in the domestic environment due to many activities that occur in this particular setting. Food and water safety is especially important to the persons infected with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) or with immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).It is estimated that food-borne pathogens (disease–causing agents) are responsible for 76 million illnesses, some resulting in death, in the United States alone every year. In one study of patients with AIDS, two-thirds had diarrhoeal disease and in two-thirds of these, the following enteric pathogens were identified: Salmonella, Shigella, Listeria, Yersnia, Cryptosporidium, Entamoeba histolylica and Campylobacter sp. In an epidemiological study of patients with HIV infection a close association was found between consumption of raw or partially cooked fish and antimicrobial-resistant Mycobacterium avium complex. Antibiotic resistance in food-borne pathogens has become a reality and this poses a serious threat to the medical fraternity since it diminishes the effectiveness of treatment. This study was undertaken to determine the prevalence of foodborne pathogens including bio aerosols isolated from the kitchen surfaces and food handler’s before and after cooking. The antibiotic resistance of the isolated pathogens was further determined to assess their impact on treatment. The following microbiota were isolated: Total viable counts (TVC), Coliforms, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas and presumptive Salmonella. The hospices had high counts of E.coli and S.aureus on the cutting boards for the breakfast session compared to the traditional home based kitchens. It was speculated that this could have originated from crosscontamination via the foodhandler’s hands and the food served. It is evident from the results that hospices lack a management system regarding the prevalence of E. coli as it was present on the cutting boards throughout the food preparation sessions. Gram negative organisms (coliform and P. aeruginosa) were in particular both resistant to oxacillin and this pose a great challenge in this particular setting. This can be addressed by putting emphasis on hygiene as a strategy per se for reducing antibiotic resistance

The Knowledge, Attitude, And Practices Of Food Handlers In Central South African Hospices

ArticleThe escalating number of foodborne diseases and food poisoning outbreaks demand a better call for improved food-handling practices. Hospices are typically described as nongovernmental organizations that offer palliative care to terminally ill patients. The majority of hospice food handlers are not trained in food safety aspects, and services are offered on a voluntary basis. In this study, a descriptive survey design comprising of semistructured questionnaire was utilized to assess the knowledge, attitudes, and practices of the hospice food handlers (n = 100) in hospices around Central South Africa. More than half of the participants (68%) had not taken basic food safety training. The average percentage of the correct answers on the knowledge questionnaire was 66.8%. The participants had a mean age of 35 years (SD = 9.27). Attendance of food safety course had a significant effect on both the practices of using gloves to touch or distribute unwrapped foods (χ2 = 8.411, p-value = .012), and washing hands after using gloves (χ2 = 12.560, p-value = .001). The overall KAP mean score was 78.38. A statistically significant difference was found between the trained and untrained food handlers regarding food safety knowledge (p < .001). There was substantial lack of knowledge regarding the correct temperature for a refrigerator including hot ready-to-eat food

Heavy Metal Contamination in Food: The Perspective of the Sub-Saharan Informal Food Trade

Food safety is often threatened by the intended or unintended introduction of contaminants. Street foods are susceptible to microbial, chemical and physical contaminants. Due to their ubiquitous existence in the environment, heavy metals are among the majority of food material contaminants and they are believed to have carcinogenic properties. Heavy metals have been a source of contamination in the informal food value chain mainly due to their bioaccumulation and existence in voluminous amounts. Several factors account for the rate of contamination and the continued failure to prevent it. Carcinogens such as lead and arsenic are often present in high levels in some vended foodstuffs, and their prolonged ingestion could have injurious effects on consumer health. Heavy metal contamination in street-vended foods sometimes occurs as a result of leaching from poorly designed or old and inadequately cleaned utensils. Moreover, aluminium pots used in cooking may leach aluminium ions, especially when acidic foods such as grains and seafood are cooked

Bacterial pathogens identified from houseflies in different human and animal settings : a systematic review and meta‐analysis.

Housefly (Musca domestica) is an excellent candidate for the distribution of susceptible and resistant bacterial strains that potentially threaten public health. To date, there is a paucity of information on the global distribution of pathogenic bacteria of medical and veterinary importance from diverse environmental settings. Therefore, this study was undertaken to conduct a systemic review and meta-analysis to estimate occurrence of various bacterial species of medical and veterinary importance harboured by houseflies around the world. Published articles from 1980 to 2020 were retrieved from electronic databases and assessed for eligibility according to Preferred Reporting Items for Systemic Reviews and Meta-Analysis guidelines. Seventy-eight studies were included in the review with only 44 studies being eligible for meta-analysis. Results indicated that eligible studies used in this review were from four continents, i.e., Asia (47.4%) America (23.1%), Africa (20.5%) and Europe (8.9%). The majority of the studies (56.4%) used the culture method for the identification of bacterial pathogens, while 30.7% used both culture and PCR techniques. For meta-analysis, we focused on five pathogenic bacterial species including Escherichia coli, Enterococcus faecium, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus. High heterogeneity was found among studies investigating different pathogens including E. coli (Q = 10,739.55; I2 = 99.60; Q-p 0.0001), E. faecium (Q = 317.61; I2 = 86.46; Q-p < 0.0001), K. pneumonia (Q = 1,576.61; I2 = 97.27; Q-p < 0.0001), S. aureus (Q = 2,439.12; I2 = 98.24; Q-p < 0.0001) and P. aeruginosa (Q = 1,283.0; I2 = 96.65; Q-p < 0.0001). Furthermore, it was observed that houseflies carried a considerable number of susceptible and antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains that pose considerable threats to public health. Findings from this study have provided more insight on the vectoral potential of houseflies in the transmission of significant bacterial pathogens from different regions across the world. Further investigation is required to quantify the bacterial contamination and dissemination by houseflies

“One Health” perspective on prevalence of co-existing extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL)-producing Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae: a comprehensive systematic review and meta-analysis

Abstract Background The Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Klebsiella pneumoniae (K. pneumoniae) bacterial isolates that produce extended-spectrum β-lactamases (ESBLs) contribute to global life-threatening infections. This study conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis on the global prevalence of ESBLs in co-existing E. coli and K. pneumoniae isolated from humans, animals and the environment. Methods The systematic review protocol was registered in the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO) [ID no: CRD42023394360]. This study was carried out following the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. One hundred and twenty-six eligible studies published on co-existing antibiotic resistance in E. coli and K. pneumoniae between 1990 and 2022 were included. Results The pooled prevalence of ESBL-producing E. coli and K. pneumoniae was 33.0% and 32.7% for humans, 33.5% and 19.4% for animals, 56.9% and 24.2% for environment, 26.8% and 6.7% for animals/environment, respectively. Furthermore, the three types of resistance genes that encode ESBLs, namely blaSHVblaCTX−M,blaOXA, and blaTEM, were all detected in humans, animals and the environment. Conclusions The concept of “One-Health” surveillance is critical to tracking the source of antimicrobial resistance and preventing its spread. The emerging state and national surveillance systems should include bacteria containing ESBLs. A well-planned, -implemented, and -researched alternative treatment for antimicrobial drug resistance needs to be formulated

Application of culture, PCR, and PacBio sequencing for determination of microbial composition of milk from subclinical mastitis dairy cows of smallholder farms

Mastitis is a cow disease usually signalized by irritation, swelling, and soreness of the udder. It is characterized by physical, chemical, and biological changes in the udder and milk. The aim of this study was to detect and characterize pathogens causing subclinical mastitis (SCM) from the milk of dairy cows of small-scale farmers through culture and molecular techniques. Milk was collected from 32 cows belonging to 8 small-scale farmers around Harrismith District, South Africa. The results showed that screening of SCM by California mastitis test and somatic cell counts (SCC) was 21.87 and 25%, respectively. Culture methods revealed the presence of Staphylococcus aureus at 93% followed by Streptococci spp. and Escherichia coli at 36.4 and 13.3%, respectively. The PCR could only detect E. coli, while single-molecule real-time sequencing showed a total of 2 phyla, 5 families, 7 genera, and 131 species. Clostridiaceae was the most abundant family, while Romboutsia was the most abundant genus followed by Turicibacter spp. The present study has documented the occurrence of SCM causing pathogens in milk collected from cows of small-scale farmers in Harrismith, indicating that SCM may be present at higher levels than expected.Central University of Technology Innovation fund and the National Research Foundation (NRF).https://www.degruyter.com/view/j/biolpm2021Veterinary Tropical Disease