Studying the endothelial glycocalyx in vitro: what is missing?

All human cells are coated by a surface layer of proteoglycans, glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) and plasma proteins, called the glycocalyx. The glycocalyx transmits shear stress to the cytoskeleton of endothelial cells, maintains a selective permeability barrier, and modulates adhesion of blood leukocytes and platelets. Major components of the glycocalyx, including syndecans, heparan sulfate, and hyaluronan, are shed from the endothelial surface layer during conditions including ischaemia and hypoxia, sepsis, atherosclerosis, diabetes, renal disease, and some viral infections. Studying mechanisms of glycocalyx damage in vivo can be challenging due to the complexity of immuno-inflammatory responses which are inextricably involved. Previously, both static as well as perfused in vitro models have studied the glycocalyx, and have reported either imaging data, assessment of barrier function, or interactions of blood components with the endothelial monolayer. To date, no model has simultaneously incorporated all these features at once, however such a model would arguably enhance the study of vasculopathic processes. This review compiles a series of current in vitro models described in the literature that have targeted the glycocalyx layer, their limitations, and potential opportunities for further developments in this field

Combined Mesenchymal Stromal Cell Therapy and ECMO in ARDS:A Controlled Experimental Study in Sheep

Rationale: Mesenchymal stromal cell (MSC) therapy is a promising intervention for acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), although trials to date have not investigated its use alongside extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO). Recent preclinical studies have suggested that combining these interventions may attenuate the efficacy of ECMO. Objectives: To determine the safety and efficacy of MSC therapy in a model of ARDS and ECMO. Methods: ARDS was induced in 14 sheep, after which they were established on venovenous ECMO. Subsequently, they received either endobronchial induced pluripotent stem cell-derived human MSCs (hMSCs) (n = 7) or cell-free carrier vehicle (vehicle control; n = 7). During ECMO, a low VT ventilation strategy was employed in addition to protocolized hemodynamic support. Animals were monitored and supported for 24 hours. Lung tissue, bronchoalveolar fluid, and plasma were analyzed, in addition to continuous respiratory and hemodynamic monitoring. Measurements and Main Results: The administration of hMSCs did not improve oxygenation (PaO2/FIO2 mean difference =2146mmHg; P= 0.076) or pulmonary function.However, histological evidence of lung injury(lung injuryscoremeandifference=20.07;P=0.04) and BALIL-8 were reduced. In addition, hMSC-treated animals had a significantly lower cumulative requirement for vasopressor. Despite endobronchial administration, animals treated with hMSCs had a significant elevation in transmembrane oxygenator pressure gradients. Thiswas accompanied by more pulmonary artery thromboses and adherent hMSCs found on explanted oxygenator fibers. Conclusions: Endobronchial hMSC therapy in an ovine model of ARDS and ECMO can impair membrane oxygenator function and does not improve oxygenation. These data do not recommend the safe use of hMSCs during venovenous ECMO. </p

The effects of nitric oxide on coagulation and inflammation in ex vivo models of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation and cardiopulmonary bypass

Background Extracorporeal life support (ECLS) has extensive applications in managing patients with acute cardiac and pulmonary failure. Two primary modalities of ECLS, cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) and extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO), include several similarities in their composition, complications, and patient outcomes. Both CPB and ECMO pose a high risk of thrombus formation and platelet activation due to the large surface area of the devices and bleeding due to system anticoagulation. Therefore, novel methods of anticoagulation are needed to reduce the morbidity and mortality associated with extracorporeal support. Nitric oxide (NO) has potent antiplatelet properties and presents a promising alternative or addition to anticoagulation with heparin during extracorporeal support. Methods We developed two ex vivo models of CPB and ECMO to investigate NO effects on anticoagulation and inflammation in these systems. Results Sole addition of NO as an anticoagulant was not successful in preventing thrombus formation in the ex vivo setups, therefore a combination of low-level heparin with NO was used. Antiplatelet effects were observed in the ex vivo ECMO model when NO was delivered at 80 ppm. Platelet count was preserved after 480 min when NO was delivered at 30 ppm. Conclusion Combined delivery of NO and heparin did not improve haemocompatibility in either ex vivo model of CPB and ECMO. Anti-inflammatory effects of NO in ECMO systems have to be evaluated further

A clinically relevant sheep model of orthotopic heart transplantation 24 h after donor brainstem death

BACKGROUND: Heart transplantation (HTx) from brainstem dead (BSD) donors is the gold-standard therapy for severe/end-stage cardiac disease, but is limited by a global donor heart shortage. Consequently, innovative solutions to increase donor heart availability and utilisation are rapidly expanding. Clinically relevant preclinical models are essential for evaluating interventions for human translation, yet few exist that accurately mimic all key HTx components, incorporating injuries beginning in the donor, through to the recipient. To enable future assessment of novel perfusion technologies in our research program, we thus aimed to develop a clinically relevant sheep model of HTx following 24 h of donor BSD. METHODS: BSD donors (vs. sham neurological injury, 4/group) were hemodynamically supported and monitored for 24 h, followed by heart preservation with cold static storage. Bicaval orthotopic HTx was performed in matched recipients, who were weaned from cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB), and monitored for 6 h. Donor and recipient blood were assayed for inflammatory and cardiac injury markers, and cardiac function was assessed using echocardiography. Repeated measurements between the two different groups during the study observation period were assessed by mixed ANOVA for repeated measures. RESULTS: Brainstem death caused an immediate catecholaminergic hemodynamic response (mean arterial pressure, p = 0.09), systemic inflammation (IL-6 - p = 0.025, IL-8 - p = 0.002) and cardiac injury (cardiac troponin I, p = 0.048), requiring vasopressor support (vasopressor dependency index, VDI, p = 0.023), with normalisation of biomarkers and physiology over 24 h. All hearts were weaned from CPB and monitored for 6 h post-HTx, except one (sham) recipient that died 2 h post-HTx. Hemodynamic (VDI - p = 0.592, heart rate - p = 0.747) and metabolic (blood lactate, p = 0.546) parameters post-HTx were comparable between groups, despite the observed physiological perturbations that occurred during donor BSD. All p values denote interaction among groups and time in the ANOVA for repeated measures. CONCLUSIONS: We have successfully developed an ovine HTx model following 24 h of donor BSD. After 6 h of critical care management post-HTx, there were no differences between groups, despite evident hemodynamic perturbations, systemic inflammation, and cardiac injury observed during donor BSD. This preclinical model provides a platform for critical assessment of injury development pre- and post-HTx, and novel therapeutic evaluation. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s40635-021-00425-4

Genetic variation in mice affects closed femoral fracture pattern outcomes

The purpose of this study was to determine whether differences in structural and material properties of bone between different mouse strains influence the fracture patterns produced under experimental fracture conditions. Femurs of C57BL/6 (B6), C3H/HeJ (C3H), and DBA/2 (DBA) strains were evaluated using micro-computed tomography (μCT), measurements derived from radiographic images and mechanical testing to determine differences in the geometry and mechanical properties. A fracture device was used to create femoral fractures on freshly sacrificed animals using a range of kinetic energies (∼20–80 mJ) which were classified as transverse, oblique, or comminuted. B6 femurs had the lowest bone volume/total volume (BV/TV) and bone mineral density (BMD), thinnest cortex, and had the most variable fracture patterns, with 77.5% transverse, 15% oblique, and 7.5% comminuted fractures. In contrast, C3H had the highest BV/TV, BMD, and thickest cortices, resulting in 97.5% transverse, 2.5% oblique, and 0% comminuted fractures. DBA had an intermediate BV/TV and thickness of cortices, with BMD similar to C3H, resulting in 92.9% transverse, 7.1% oblique, and 0% comminuted fractures. A binomial logistic regression confirmed that bone morphometry was the single strongest predictor of the resulting fracture pattern. This study demonstrated that the reproducibility of closed transverse femoral fractures was most influenced by the structural and material properties of the bone characteristics in each strain, rather than the kinetic energy or body weight of the mice. This was evidenced through geometric analysis of X-ray and μCT data, and further supported by the bone mineral density measurements from each strain, derived from μCT. Furthermore, this study also demonstrated that the use of lower kinetic energies was more than sufficient to reproducibly create transverse fractures, and to avoid severe tissue trauma. The creation of reproducible fracture patterns is important as this often dictates the outcomes of fracture healing, and those studies that do not control this potential variability could lead to a false interpretation of the results

Protective effects of reactive functional groups on chondrocytes in photocrosslinkable hydrogel systems

Photocrosslinkable hydrogels are frequently used in cartilage tissue engineering, with crosslinking systems relying on cytotoxic photoinitiators and ultraviolet (UV) light to form permanent hydrogels. These systems are rarely assessed in terms of optimization of photoinitiator or UV dosage, with non-cytotoxic concentrations from literature deemed sufficient. We hypothesized that the number of reactive functional groups present within a hydrogel polymer is highly relevant when crosslinking, affording cytoprotection to chondrocytes by preferentially interacting with the highly reactive radicals that are formed during UV-mediated activation of a photoinitiator. This was tested using two photocrosslinkable hydrogel systems: gelatin methacrylamide (GelMA) and gellan gum methacrylate (GGMA). We further assessed the effects of two different UV dosages on chondrocyte differentiation while subject to a single photoinitiator dosage in the GGMA system. Most notably, we found that a higher ratio of reactive groups to photoinitiator molecules offers cytoprotective effects, and future developments in photocrosslinkable hydrogel technology may involve assessment of such ratios. In contrast, we found there to be no effect of UV on chondrocyte differentiation at the two chosen dosages. Overall the optimization of photocrosslinkable systems is of great value in cartilage tissue engineering and these data provide a groundwork for such concepts to be developed further. Statement of Significance Photocrosslinkable hydrogels, which use photoinitiators and predominantly ultraviolet light to form stable matrices for cell encapsulation and tissue development, are promising for cartilage tissue engineering. While both photoinitiators and ultraviolet light can damage cells, these systems have generally not been optimized. We propose that the ratio of reactive functional groups within a polymer to photoinitiator molecules is a critical parameter for optimization of photocrosslinkable hydrogels. Using photocrosslinkable gelatin and gellan gum, we found that a higher ratio of reactive groups to photoinitiator molecules protected chondrocytes, but did not affect chondrocyte differentiation. The principle of cytoprotection by functional groups developed in this work will be of great value in optimizing photocrosslinkable hydrogel systems for cartilage and other tissue engineering applications

A comprehensive study of acid and base treatment of 3D printed poly(ε-caprolactone) scaffolds to tailor surface characteristics

Poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) chain cleavage results in the formation of polar terminal species, comprising hydroxy and carboxyl groups that enhance surface hydrophilicity and enable subsequent biofunctionalization. However, the direct effects of various acidic and basic treatments on 3D printed PCL scaffolds have not been studied from a functional perspective. In this study, we comprehensively assessed the influence of acid (hydrochloric, HCl) and base (sodium hydroxide, NaOH) catalyzed hydrolysis across different conditions on various properties of 3D printed PCL scaffolds. Analyses included testing of physiochemical and mechanical properties, and assessment of rate and stability of surface-nucleating bioactive apatite-like minerals. HCl exposure resulted in pronounced bulk degradation, as observed through limited increase in surface charge, pronounced mechanical weakening, and clear decrease in molecular weight. Conversely, NaOH treatment resulted in a more superficial degradation, with a dramatic increase in surface charge, much lower mechanical degradation, and little change in molecular weight. Indeed, the characteristics observed under acidic catalysis appeared more representative of physiological degradation. The apatite-like coating on the base-treated surface was found to be superior. Our results demonstrate the range of surface and bulk properties achievable through these accessible treatments, and support such techniques for the functionalization of PCL scaffolds for biomedical applications.</p

In vitro testing of cyanoacrylate tissue adhesives and sutures for extracorporeal membrane oxygenation cannula securement

BACKGROUND: Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO), an invasive mechanical therapy, provides cardio-respiratory support to critically ill patients when maximal conventional support has failed. ECMO is delivered via large-bore cannulae which must be effectively secured to avoid complications including cannula migration, dislodgement and accidental decannulation. Growing evidence suggests tissue adhesive (TA) may be a practical and safe method to secure vascular access devices, but little evidence exists pertaining to securement of ECMO cannulae. The aim of this study was to determine the safety and efficacy of two TA formulations (2-octyl cyanoacrylate and n-butyl-2-octyl cyanoacrylate) for use in peripherally inserted ECMO cannula securement, and compare TA securement to 'standard' securement methods.METHODS: This in vitro project assessed: (1) the tensile strength and flexibility of TA formulations compared to 'standard' ECMO cannula securement using a porcine skin model, and (2) the chemical resistance of the polyurethane ECMO cannulae to TA. An Instron 5567 Universal Testing System was used for strength testing in both experiments.RESULTS: Securement with sutures and n-butyl-2-octyl cyanoacrylate both significantly increased the force required to dislodge the cannula compared to a transparent polyurethane dressing (p = 0.006 and p = 0.003, respectively) and 2-octyl cyanoacrylate (p = 0.023 and p = 0.013, respectively). Suture securement provided increased flexibility compared to TA securement (p CONCLUSIONS: Tissue adhesive appears to be a promising adjunct method of ECMO cannula insertion site securement. Tissue adhesive securement with n-butyl-2-octyl cyanoacrylate may provide comparable securement strength to a single polypropylene drain stitch, and, when used as an adjunct securement method, may minimise the risks associated with suture securement. However, further clinical research is still needed in this area.</p