The gender paradigm in domestic violence research and theory: Part 1—The conflict of theory and data

Abstract Feminist theory of intimate violence is critically reviewed in the light of data from numerous incidence studies reporting levels of violence by female perpetrators higher than those reported for males, particularly in younger age samples. A critical analysis of the methodology of these studies is made with particular reference to the Conflict Tactics Scale developed and utilised by Straus and his colleagues. Results show that the gender disparity in injuries from domestic violence is less than originally portrayed by feminist theory. Studies are also reviewed indicating high levels of unilateral intimate violence by females to both males and females. Males appear to report their own victimization less than females do and to not view female violence against them as a crime. Hence, they differentially under-report being victimized by partners on crime victim surveys. It is concluded that feminist theory is contradicted by these findings and that the call for bqualitativeQ studies by feminists is really a means of avoiding this conclusion. A case is made for a paradigm having developed amongst family violence activists and researchers that precludes the notion of female violence, trivializes injuries to males and maintains a monolithic view of a complex social problem.

The gender paradigm in domestic violence research and theory: Part 1—The conflict of theory and data

Abstract Feminist theory of intimate violence is critically reviewed in the light of data from numerous incidence studies reporting levels of violence by female perpetrators higher than those reported for males, particularly in younger age samples. A critical analysis of the methodology of these studies is made with particular reference to the Conflict Tactics Scale developed and utilised by Straus and his colleagues. Results show that the gender disparity in injuries from domestic violence is less than originally portrayed by feminist theory. Studies are also reviewed indicating high levels of unilateral intimate violence by females to both males and females. Males appear to report their own victimization less than females do and to not view female violence against them as a crime. Hence, they differentially under-report being victimized by partners on crime victim surveys. It is concluded that feminist theory is contradicted by these findings and that the call for bqualitativeQ studies by feminists is really a means of avoiding this conclusion. A case is made for a paradigm having developed amongst family violence activists and researchers that precludes the notion of female violence, trivializes injuries to males and maintains a monolithic view of a complex social problem.

Supportive housing and forensic patient outcomes

In Canada, Review Boards are mandated to evaluate individuals found Not Criminally Responsible on Account of Mental Disorder (NCRMD) on an annual basis and render 1 of 3 dispositions: (a) custody, (b) conditional discharge, or (c) absolute discharge. To promote social reintegration, conditional discharge can be ordered with the condition to live in supportive housing. However, NCRMD accused face great barriers to housing access as a result of the stigma associated with the forensic label. The goal of this study was to evaluate the role of housing in the clinical and criminal trajectories of forensic patients as they reintegrate into the community. Data for this study were extracted from a national study of individuals found NCRMD in Canada (Crocker, Nicholls, Seto, Côté, et al., in press). The present study focuses on a random sample of NCRMD accused in the province of Québec, who were under a conditional discharge disposition during the study period (n = 837). Controlling for sociodemographic, clinical, and criminal variables, survival analysis showed that individuals placed in independent housing following a conditional discharge from the Review Board were 2.5 times more likely to commit a new offense, nearly 3 times more likely to commit an offense against a person, and 1.4 times more likely to be readmitted for psychiatric treatment compared with individuals residing in supportive housing. These results point to the influence housing can have on the trajectories of forensic patients, above and beyond a range of clinical, criminological, and sociodemographic factors

The use of risk and need factors in forensic mental health decision-making and the role of gender and index offense severity

Canadian legislation makes Review Boards (RBs) responsible for rendering dispositions for individuals found Not Criminally Responsible on account of Mental Disorder (NCRMD) after considering public safety, the mental condition of the accused, and his/her potential for community reintegration. We reviewed 6,743 RB hearings for 1,794 individuals found NCRMD in the three largest Canadian provinces to investigate whether items from two empirically supported risk assessment measures, the Historical Clinical Risk Management‐20 and the Violence Risk Appraisal Guide, were considered. Less than half the items were included in expert reports or in RBs' reasons for dispositions, and consideration of these items differed according to gender and index offense severity of the accused. These items included evidence‐based risk factors and/or legally specified criteria: mental health, treatment, and criminal history. These results illustrate the gap between research on risk factors and the integration of this evidence into practice. In particular, we recommend the implementation of structured measures to reduce the potential for clinicians to be unduly influenced by gender and offense severity

Factors associated with review board dispositions following re-hospitalization among discharged persons found not criminally responsible

In the Canadian forensic mental health system, a person found Not Criminally Responsible on account of Mental Disorder (NCRMD) and given a conditional discharge returns to the community while remaining under the jurisdiction of a provincial/territorial Review Board. However, the individual can be re-hospitalized while on conditional discharge, for reasons such as substance use, violation of conditions, or violence. We investigated whether being rehospitalized has an impact on the factors associated with the subsequent Review Board disposition. Persons found NCRMD from the three largest Canadian provinces who were conditionally discharged at least once during the observation period were included in the sample (N=1,367). These individuals were involved in 2,920 disposition hearings; nearly one-third of patients (30%) were re-hospitalized after having been conditionally discharged by the Review Board. The factors examined included the scales of the Historical Clinical Risk Management-20 and salient behavior that occurred since the previous hearing, such as substance use or violence. The greater presence of clinical items resulted in a greater likelihood of a hospital detention decision at the next hearing. The effect was larger for the re-hospitalized group than for the group who successfully remained in the community since the last hearing. The results suggest that dynamic factors, specifically indicators of mental health, are heavily weighted by the Review Boards, consistent with the literature on imminent risk and in line with the NCRMD legislation

The national trajectory project of individuals found not criminally responsible on account of mental disorder in Canada. Part 1 : context and methods

The National Trajectory Project examined longitudinal data from a large sample of people found not criminally responsible on account of mental disorder (NCRMD) to assess the presence of provincial differences in the application of the law, to examine the characteristics of people with serious mental illness who come into conflict with the law and receive this verdict, and to investigate the trajectories of NCRMD–accused people as they traverse the mental health and criminal justice systems. Our paper describes the rationale for the National Trajectory Project and the methods used to collect data in Quebec, Ontario, and British Columbia, the 3 most populous provinces in Canada and the 3 provinces with the most people found NCRMD.Les membres du Projet national des trajectoires ont examiné les données longitudinales d’un vaste échantillon de personnes déclarées non criminellement responsables pour cause de troubles mentaux (NCRTM) afin d’évaluer la présence de différences provinciales en matière d’application de la loi, d’étudier les caractéristiques de personnes ayant une maladie mentale grave qui, ayant des démêlés avec la justice, sont déclarées non criminellement responsables, et d’examiner les trajectoires des accusés NCRTM à travers les systèmes de santé mentale et de justice pénale. Le présent document décrit la raison d’être du Projet national des trajectoires et les méthodes utilisées pour recueillir des données au Québec, en Ontario et en ColombieBritannique, les 3 provinces les plus populeuses du Canada et celles où se trouve la majorité des personnes déclarées NCRTM

The National Trajectory Project of individuals found not criminally responsible on account of mental disorder in Canada. Part 3 : trajectories and outcomes through the forensic system

Objective : To examine the processing and Review Board (RB) disposition outcomes of people found not criminally responsible on account of mental disorder (NCRMD) across the 3 most populous provinces in Canada. Although the Criminal Code is federally legislated, criminal justice is administered by provinces and territories. It follows that a person with mental illness who comes into conflict with the law and subsequently comes under the management of a legally mandated RB may experience different trajectories across jurisdictions. Method : The National Trajectory Project examined 1800 men and women found NCRMD in British Columbia (n = 222), Quebec (n = 1094), and Ontario (n = 484) between May 2000 and April 2005, followed until December 2008. Results : We found significant interprovincial differences in the trajectories of people found NCRMD, including time detained in hospital and time under the supervision of an RB. The odds of being conditionally or absolutely discharged by the RB varied across provinces, even after number of past offences, diagnosis at verdict, and most severe index offence (all covariates decreased likelihood of discharge) were considered. Conclusions : Considerable discrepancies in the application of NCRMD legislation and the processing of NCRMD cases through the forensic system across the provinces suggests that fair and equitable treatment under the law could be enhanced by increased national integration and collaboration.Objectif : Examiner les résultats du processus et des dispositions de la Commission d'examen (CE) pour les personnes déclarées non criminellement responsables pour cause de troubles mentaux (NCRTM) dans les 3 provinces les plus populeuses du Canada. Le Code criminel relève de la compétence du gouvernement fédéral, mais la justice pénale est administrée par les provinces et territoires. Il s'ensuit qu'une personne ayant un trouble mental qui a des démêlés avec la justice et qui est subséquemment placée sous la supervision d'une CE peut connaître différentes trajectoires dans différentes juridictions ou régions ou provinces. Méthode : Le Projet national des trajectoires a permis d'examiner 1800 hommes et femmes déclarés NCRTM en Colombie-Britannique (n = 222), au Québec (n = 1094) et en Ontario (n = 484) de mai 2000 à avril 2005, et de les suivre jusqu'en décembre 2008. Résultats : Nous avons constaté des différences interprovinciales significatives dans les trajectoires des personnes déclarées NCRTM, notamment le temps de détention dans un hôpital et le temps sous la supervision d'une CE. Les probabilités d'une libération conditionnelle ou absolue accordée par la CE variaient entre les provinces, même après examen du nombre d'infractions passées, du diagnostic au verdict, et des infractions répertoriées les plus graves (toutes les covariables réduisaient la probabilité d'une libération). Conclusions : Les écarts considérables dans l'application de la législation NCRTM et dans le traitement des cas NCRTM au sein du système psycho-olégal entre les provinces suggèrent qu'un traitement juste et équitable en vertu de la loi pourrait être amélioré par une plus grande intégration et collaboration nationale

The national trajectory project of individuals found not criminally responsible on account of mental disorder in Canada. Part 4 : criminal recidivism.

OBJECTIVE: To examine criminal recidivism rates of a large sample of people found not criminally responsible on account of mental disorder (NCRMD) in Canada's 3 most populous provinces, British Columbia, Ontario, and Quebec. Public concern about the dangerousness of people found NCRMD has been fed by media attention on high-profile cases. However, little research is available on the rate of reoffending among people found NCRMD across Canadian provinces. METHOD: Using data from the National Trajectory Project, this study examined 1800 men and women in British Columbia (n = 222), Ontario (n = 484), and Quebec (n = 1094) who were found NCRMD between May 2000 and April 2005 and followed until December 2008. RESULTS: Recidivism was relatively low after 3 years (17%). There were interprovincial differences after controlling for number of prior criminal offences, diagnosis, seriousness of the index offence, and supervision by the review boards. British Columbia (10%) and Ontario (9%) were similar, whereas Quebec had almost twice the recidivism (22%). People who had committed severe violent index offences were less likely to reoffend than those who had committed less severe offences. People from the sample were less likely to reoffend when under the purview of review boards, across all 3 provinces. CONCLUSION: The results of this study, along with other research on processing differences, suggest systemic differences in the trajectories and outcomes of persons found NCRMD need to be better understood to guide national policies and practice

The National Trajectory Project of individuals found not criminally responsible on account of mental disorder in Canada. Part 2 : the people behind the label

Objective : To examine the psychosocio-criminological characteristics of not criminally responsible on account of mental disorder (NCRMD)–accused people and compare them across the 3 most populous provinces. In Canada, the number of people found NCRMD has risen during the past 20 years. The Criminal Code is federally legislated but provincially administered, and mental health services are provincially governed. Our study offers a rare opportunity to observe the characteristics and trajectories of NCRMD–accused people. Method : The National Trajectory Project examined 1800 men and women found NCRMD in British Columbia (n = 222), Quebec (n = 1094), and Ontario (n = 484) between May 2000 to April 2005, followed until December 2008. Results : The most common primary diagnosis was a psychotic spectrum disorder. One-third of NCRMD–accused people had a severe mental illness and a concomitant substance use disorder, with British Columbia having the highest rate of dually diagnosed NCRMD–accused people. Most accused people (72.4%) had at least 1 prior psychiatric hospitalization. Two-thirds of index NCRMD offences were against the person, with a wide range of severity. Family members, followed by professionals, such as police and mental health care workers, were the most frequent victims. Quebec had the highest proportion of people with a mood disorder and the lowest median offence severity. There were both interprovincial differences and similarities in the characteristics of NCRMD-accused people. Conclusions : Contrary to public perception, severe violent offenses such as murder, attempted murder or sexual offences represent a small proportion of all NCRMD verdict offences. The results reveal a heterogeneous population regarding mental health and criminological characteristics in need of hierarchically organized forensic mental health services and levels of security. NCRMD—accused people were well known to civil psychiatric services prior to being found NCRMD. Risk assessment training and interventions to reduce violence and criminality should be a priority in civil mental health services.Objectif : Examiner les caractéristiques psychologiques, sociales et criminologiques des accusés déclarés non criminellement responsables pour cause de troubles mentaux (NCRTM) et les comparer dans les 3 provinces les plus peuplées. Au Canada, le nombre de personnes déclarées NCRTM a augmenté ces 20 dernières années. Le Code criminel relève de la compétence du gouvernement fédéral mais son application relève des provinces, et les services de santé mentale sont régis par les provinces. Cette étude offre l'occasion unique d'observer les caractéristiques et la trajectoire des accusés NCRTM. Méthode : Le Projet national des trajectoires a permis d'examiner 1800 hommes et femmes déclarés NCRTM en Colombie-Britannique (n = 222), au Québec (n = 1094) et en Ontario (n = 484) de mai 2000 à avril 2005, et de les suivre jusqu'en décembre 2008. Résultats : Le diagnostic principal le plus courant était un trouble du spectre de la psychose. Un tiers des accusés NCRTM souffraient d'une maladie mentale grave et d'un trouble concomitant lié à l'utilisation de substances, la Colombie-Britannique ayant le taux le plus élevé d'accusés NCRTM ayant ces troubles concommitants. La plupart des accusés (72,4%) avaient déjà été hospitalisés au moins une fois dans un établissement psychiatrique. Les deux tiers des infractions répertoriées des accusés NCRTM étaient des infractions contre la personne, de niveaux de gravité variables. Les membres de la famille, puis des intervenants comme les agents de police et les travailleurs de la santé mentale, étaient les victimes les plus fréquentes. C'est au Québec que la proportion de personnes souffrant d'un trouble de l'humeur était la plus élevée et que la gravité médiane des infractions était la plus basse. Les caractéristiques des accusés NCRTM entre les provinces présentent à la fois des différences et des similarités. Conclusions : Contrairement à la perception publique, les infractions graves avec violence comme le meurtre, les tentatives de meurtre ou les agressions sexuelles représentent une faible proportion de tous les verdicts NCRTM. Les résultats révèlent une population hétérogène en termes de santé mentale et de caractéristiques criminologiques ayant besoin de services hiérarchisés et des niveaux de sécurités variables. Les personnes déclarées NCRTM étaient bien connues des services de psychiatrie générale avant d'être trouvées NCRTM. La formation et les interventions en évaluation du risque, afin de réduire la violence et la criminalité, devraient être une priorité dans les services de santé mentale civils

The National Trajectory Project of individuals found not criminally responsible on account of mental disorder. Part 5 : how essential are gender-specific forensic psychiatric services?

Objective : To state the sociodemographic characteristics, mental health histories, index offence characteristics, and criminal histories of male and female forensic psychiatric patients. Clinicians and researchers advocate that mental health and criminal justice organizations implement gender-specific services; however, few studies have sampled forensic patients to evaluate the extent to which men's and women's treatment and management needs are different. Method : Data were collected from Review Board files from May 2000 to April 2005 in the 3 largest Canadian provinces. Using official criminal records, participants were followed for 3 to 8 years, until December 2008. The final sample comprised 1800 individuals: 15.6% were women and 84.4% were men. Results : There were few demographic differences, but women had higher psychosocial functioning than men. Both men and women had extensive mental health histories; women were more likely diagnosed with mood disorders and PDs and men were more likely diagnosed with schizophrenia spectrum disorders and SUDs. The nature of the index offence did not differ by gender, except women were more likely to have perpetrated murders and attempted murders. For offences against a person, women were more likely to offend against offspring and partners and less likely to offend against strangers, compared with men. Women had significantly less extensive criminal histories than men. Conclusions : Not criminally responsible on account of mental disorder-accused women have a distinct psychosocial, clinical, and criminological profile from their male counterparts, which may suggest gender-specific assessment, risk management, and treatment in forensic services could benefit patients. The findings are also consistent with traditional models (Risk-Need-Responsivity) and ultimately demonstrate the importance of individual assessment and client-centred services.Objectif : Établir les caractéristiques sociodémographiques, les antécédents de santé mentale, les caractéristiques de l'infraction répertoriée, et les antécédents criminels des patients masculins et féminins de psychiatrie légale. Cliniciens et chercheurs revendiquent que les organisations de santé mentale et de justice pénale offrent des services sexospécifiques; toutefois, peu d'études ont évalué à quel point les besoins de traitement et de prise en charge des hommes et des femmes sont différents dans des échantillons de patients médicolégaux. Méthode : Les données ont été recueillies dans les dossiers de la CE, de mai 2000 à avril 2005, dans les 3 provinces les plus populeuses. Au moyen des casiers judiciaires officiels, les participants ont été suivis de 3 à 8 ans, jusqu'en décembre 2008. L'échantillon final comptait 1800 personnes dont 15,6% étaient des femmes et 84,4%, des hommes. Résultats : Il y avait peu de différences démograhiques, mais les femmes avaient un fonctionnement psychosocial plus élevé que celui des hommes. Les hommes comme les femmes avaient de longs antécédents de santé mentale, les femmes étant plus susceptibles de recevoir un diagnostic de trouble de l'humeur ou de la personnalité et les hommes, un diagnostic du spectre de la schizophrénie ou d'un trouble lié aux substances. La nature de l'infraction répertoriée ne différait pas selon le sexe, sauf que les femmes étaient plus susceptibles d'avoir commis un meurtre ou une tentative de meurtre. Pour les infractions contre la personne, les femmes étaient plus susceptibles de s'en prendre à leurs enfants et leurs partenaires et moins à des étrangers, comparées aux hommes. Elles avaient des antécédents criminels significativement moins lourds que les hommes. Conclusions : Les femmes NCRTM ont un profil psychosocial, clinique et criminologique distinct de celui des hommes, suggérant ainsi qu'une évaluation, une gestion de risque et un traitement sexospécifiques dans les services psycho-légaux pourraient bénéficier aux patients. Les résultats sont aussi conformes aux modèles traditionnels (risque-besoin-réceptivité) et démontrent finalement l'importance de l'évaluation individuelle et des services axés sur le client