Pollution-Aware Walking in 16 Countries:An Application of the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB)

Background: The current levels of air pollution in European countries reduces life expectancy by an average of 8 months. People who actively travel by walking have a higher level of exposure to air pollution than those who use motor vehicles or electric buses. Some routes have higher air pollution levels than others, but little is known about pollution-aware route choice and intentions to actively avoid walking near polluted roads. An improved understanding of how air pollution influences intentions to walk or avoid polluted routes can inform interventions to decrease exposure. The present investigation has three aims: (1) compare experiences walking near roads with high levels of air pollution across countries; (2) identify groups of countries based on perceptions of air quality; and (3) examine how pedestrians develop their intentions of avoiding pollution using the extended TPB (demographics, social norms, attitudes, perceived control, and perceived risk).Methods: A cross-sectional design was applied. Pedestrians were asked about their experiences walking near roads with high levels of air pollution. To identify groups of countries with different levels of air pollution, a cluster analysis was implemented based on the perceptions of air quality. Finally, regressions were used to predict pedestrians’ intentions to avoid polluted roads per country group using the extended TPB.Results: 6180 respondents (Age M(SD)= 29.4(14.2); Males= 39.2%) ranging from 12.6% from Russia to 2.2% from Finland completed the questionnaire. The proportion of participants who reported never walking near air polluted roads was 12.4% (from 3% in Brazil to 54% in Japan). Seven groups of countries were identified using perceptions of air quality: G1(Japan, Mexico, Colombia, Turkey, Malaysia & Brazil), G2(Spain, Romania & Czechia), G3(Chile, Russia & Peru), G4(China), G5(Australia), G6(Finland), and G7(Portugal). Participants in China (G4) and Australia (G5) reported the worst and best air quality respectively. Across all countries, intentions to avoid polluted roads were associated with perceptions of risk. TPB-psychosocial factors such as social norms and perceived behavioural control also influenced intention in most groups. Favourable TPB-beliefs and low perceived risk increase intentions to avoid polluted routes.Conclusions: The willingness of pedestrians to walk on or near roads with high levels of air pollution differs significantly among countries in this study. Countries can be grouped based on their perceived air quality. Perceived risk was the only common predictor of intention to avoid polluted routes across the different groups of countries

New method to estimate local and system-wide effects of level rail crossings on network traffic flow

This paper makes local and aggregate estimates of the effects of 152 level crossings in the Melbourne metropolitan area, Australia on traffic congestion in the morning peak period (7 am–9 am). A new method, including micro-simulation of a range of rail crossing configurations, is used to inform a network model which makes aggregate estimates of impacts on all traffic. Relationships between train frequency and percentage change in vehicle travel time and volume were identified. These equations can predict change in travel time/traffic flow caused by rail level crossings based on rail crossing closures and train frequency. Overall, Melbourne\u27s level crossings result in an average increase in travel time of 16.1% for vehicle traffic on links with a level crossing. However on average a level crossing reduces the volume of vehicles on these links by 5.9% as a result of traffic diversion. These values are higher in middle suburbs where train arrivals and crossing closure times at level crossings are more frequent. The aggregate effect of all 152 level rail crossings on all traffic in Melbourne is a travel time change from 1.81 to 1.82 min/km (an increase of around 0.3%). The number of congested links in Melbourne increases by 0.9% while the total delay increases by 0.7%. These network wide effects are not large compared to localised effects because road links affected directly by crossings represent a very small part of the overall network. Additionally, network effects also include traffic diversion impacts which will counteract some of the immediate impacts on a localised scale. However, it is significant that the very small element of the system can have even a measurable effect on aggregate traffic congestion

Exploring the impact of public transport strikes on travel behavior and traffic congestion

Public transport (PT) disruption can occur due to various factors such as malfunctions and breakdowns of vehicles, power outages, and personnel strikes. This paper explores the network-wide impacts of PT strikes (train, tram, and bus strikes) on traffic congestion in Melbourne, Australia using a network modeling approach. A primary survey aimed to investigate the mode shift of users when each public transport mode ceases was conducted with 648 public transport users in May 2016. Findings show that train withdrawal was expected to result in 43% of users shifting to car. Smaller yet significant shifts to car was also expected with bus withdrawal (34%) and tram withdrawal (17%). Based on the survey results and the use of a four-step transport model, train withdrawal was expected to increase the number of severely congested road links by 130% and reduce the average travel speed from 48 km/h to 39 km/h (20% decrease). Bus and tram withdrawal was also found to increase congestion although the result was less severe. Future research should investigate the switching behavior in actual withdrawal events and explore the long-term effects of public transport withdrawal

How do public transport users adjust their travel behaviour if public transport ceases? A qualitative study

Mode shift from public transport (PT) to private car when a PT shut-down occurs results in an increase in the number of car trips on the road network which may contribute to traffic congestion. Policies aimed at reducing the mode shift to car can be designed through a better understanding of PT users’ mode shift in the event of a PT disruption. Furthermore, the share of car mode shift is also an important parameter for assessing traffic congestion relief associated with day to day PT provision in cities. This study sought to uncover factors influencing the mode shift to car among PT users in the event of a PT disruption. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 30PT users from Melbourne, Australia. Grounded theory was used to derive categories and subcategories of behavioural responses. Factors affecting mode shift to car if PT ceases in the short term were classified into three main themes with several subcategories: individual-specific factors, context-specific factors and journey-specific factors. In the long term, the analysis reveals that only context-specific factors have an influence on mode shift. Findings show that car access, travel time, travel cost, trip importance, non-central business district (CBD) trips, weather, flexibility and accessibility to PT stations are the most important factors favouring use of the car if PT ceases in the short term. This acts to increase traffic congestion due to the mode shift to car. However, in the long term, removing PT is expected to have an impact on land use, leading to individuals changing their residential and workplace location

Transit user reactions to major service withdrawal – A behavioural study

Public Transport (PT) plays an important role in mobility in urban areas. A major PT disruption removing all service can have a considerable impact on travel and increase traffic congestion. This paper investigates the behavioural reactions of PT users in Melbourne to removal of PT service using self-reported responses and an online questionnaire. Of the 640 respondents, 52% would switch from PT to become a car driver, 11% would switch to car as a passenger and 5% would shift to taxi/Uber. Mode shift to cars would directly contribute to an increase in congestion. By contrast, only 31% in total would switch to either non-motorised modes (cycle and walk) or trip cancellation. In order to explore factors affecting changes in travel behaviour among PT users, a multinomial logit regression model was adopted. The analysis indicates that users with a driver\u27s license or a car were found to prefer using a car should PT be unavailable. Work trips were more likely to be undertaken by car as a driver. Users who had trips to the CBD were more likely to cancel their trips and those who accessed PT stations by car were more willing to shift to being a car driver. This paper provides new insights into how PT users change their travel behaviour in the event of major PT disruptions. Based on the findings, potential measures can be proposed to mitigate the increase in traffic congestion

Mobile phone use among car drivers and motorcycle riders: The effect of problematic mobile phone use, attitudes, beliefs and perceived risk

Mobile phone use while driving presents significant risks, potentially leading to injury or death through distracted driving. Using a case study of Vietnam, this research aimed to understand the effect of problematic mobile phone use (also known as mobile phone addiction or compulsive mobile phone use), attitudes and beliefs, and perceived risk on the frequency of mobile phone use among motorcyclists and car drivers. A self-administered questionnaire was distributed to motorcyclists (n1= 529) and car drivers (n2= 328) using an online survey and face-to-face survey. The survey took around 20-min to complete and participants were entered into a lottery for supermarket vouchers. Of the motorcyclists, 42% of the sample (the highest proportion) was in the 18-25 age group while the 36-45 age group accounted for the highest proportion among car drivers (34.8%). Using structural equation modelling (SEM), key findings showed that each construct influenced mobile phone use, but in different ways for motorcycle riders and car drivers. Attitudes and beliefs had the largest effect on mobile phone use while riding among motorcyclists, with problematic mobile phone use having the smallest influence. In contrast, problematic mobile phone use had the largest effect on mobile phone use while driving a car, with attitudes and beliefs having the smallest effect. The findings of this study point to the need for tailored interventions involving a range of actors (policymakers, police enforcement, mental health professionals, advocacy groups and the wider community) to raise awareness, modify attitudes and increase risk perception associated with mobile phone use while driving/riding. This can be achieved thorough educational tools and road safety campaigns which are focused on reducing this risky driving behaviour. This includes customising road safety programs for individuals and groups affected by problematic mobile phone use such as targeted advertising.</p

Modelling the net traffic congestion impact of bus operations in Melbourne

Bus services can be seen as a way to reduce traffic congestion where they can encourage a mode shift from car. However, they can also generate negative effects on traffic flow due to stop-start operations at bus stops. This paper aims to assess the net impact of bus operations on traffic congestion in Melbourne. The methodology used to achieve this aim comprised of three main stages. First, a primary survey was conducted to determine the mode shift from bus to car when buses are unavailable. This figure was used to estimate the positive impact of buses on relieving congestion. Second, the negative impact of buses was investigated by considering the effect of bus stop operations on vehicle traffic flow using microsimulation. Finally, the net effect was estimated by contrasting congestion measures determined from a traditional four step model between two scenarios: ‘with bus’ and ‘without bus’. The results indicated that Melbourne’s bus network contributes to reduce the number of severely congested road links by approximately 10% and total delay on the road network by around 3%. The highest congestion relief impact was found in inner Melbourne with a 7% decrease in vehicle time travelled and total delay, and 16% decrease in the number of heavily congested road links. In inner areas, the level of congestion is relatively high so the mode shift from car to bus, even if not as high as middle and outer areas, have a significant effect on relieving traffic congestion. Areas for future research are suggested such as investigating the long-term effect of buses on traffic congestion

Investigating the complexity of perceived service quality and perceived safety and security in building loyalty among bus passengers in Vietnam – A PLS-SEM approach

Previous studies have explored the effect of public transport (PT) passengers’ service quality perceptions, personal safety perceptions on loyalty intention. However, they have not yet studied the multidimensionality of these constructs, nor applied a hierarchical-component model evaluation approach for testing their measurements. In this study, an integrated model has been developed in the context of bus services within a developing country. Specifically, perceived safety and security is measured for the entire PT journey and operationalised as a formative second-order construct derived from three reflective dimensions: perceived safety and security during access/egress, at bus stops and on board. Similarly, the four dimensions of tangibility, convenience, personnel and reliability together form perceived service quality. Additionally, the moderating effect of gender in the cultivation of passenger loyalty is also examined in this study. Data collected from 870 bus passengers in two Vietnamese cities is used to validate the proposed model. Using partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM), the findings indicate that perceived service quality, perceived safety/security, image and satisfaction have significant positive influences on passenger loyalty towards bus services. Female passengers are also found to be significantly more loyal than their male counterparts when having a higher level of safety and security perception. Based on the findings, authorities and policymakers can develop safer, more sustainable PT systems and design more effective strategies to increase the loyalty of passengers

The formation of passenger loyalty : Differences between ride-hailing and traditional taxi services

Background: Taxi services have played an essential role in the transport system as they contribute to urban mobility. With the rapid development of information and communication technologies, ride-hailing services, one of the typical sharing economy forms of road transport, have become increasingly popular. The uptake of app-based technologies that support the sharing economy for transport is considered to threaten the future of traditional taxi services directly. Aim: This study aims to compare the direct and indirect effects of factors such as perceived benefits of booking method, perceived safety, involvement and satisfaction on the loyalty of passengers to ride-hailing and traditional taxi services. Method: A structural equation model of the relationships among these constructs was tested using data collected from 545 respondents (263 ride-hailing passengers and 282 traditional taxi passengers) who have used these services at least once a month in Vietnam. Results: The results have confirmed that there was a strong relationship between satisfaction and loyalty for ride-hailing as well as traditional taxi services. It was also evident that the variable describing the perceived benefits of booking method was the second strongest factor influencing traditional taxi passengers’ loyalty while the perception of safety was the second most important determinant of ride-hailing passengers’ loyalty. Conclusions: Results from this investigation offer insights for the development of strategies aiming at increasing the loyalty of ride-hailing as well as traditional taxi users. By focusing on the strengths and improving the weaknesses of each transport service, these two services can be complementary and co-existing without cannibalising each other. In turn this will lead to a transport system capable to serve all types of users.</p