Analysis of menstrual hygiene practices in Nepal: the role of WASH in Schools programme for girls education

In Nepal, 48% of women and girls are between the ages of 15-44. Though menstruation is a natural process, it remains a taboo and is stigmatized, and in worst case scenarios promotes negative cultural practices impacting the lives, health, and safety of women and girls. UNICEF conducted a research to explore the socio-cultural practices related to menstruation and management and consequences pertaining to girls’ education. The research indicated that despite availability of WASH facilities in schools, girls often struggled to manage their menstruation hygiene confidently and effectively. Many girls experienced shame, fear, confusion, teasing, lack of accurate information and advice. 15 to 22% of girls missed schools due to menstruation. The research found a significant impact of WASH Programme with 53% of girls in Bajura district using sanitary pads. The study recommends multidimensional interventions to address the issues identified. This paper presents aimed at sharing the results from this study

Patterns and determinants of age at first marriage of women in Nepal

Despite the general increase in age at marriage of women in Nepal, early marriage persists in the Terai region, in particular, among many sub-populations of Terai-origin people. This study explores the patterns and determinants of age at first marriage of girls in Nepal. It had three specific objectives: i) to assess the extent and level of early marriage in Nepal, ii) to investigate the reasons for persistence of early marriage among some families in the Terai, and iii) to understand the mechanism of the dowry system, cross-border marriage migration, and ethnic mix, and their impact on age at marriage of girls in the Terai. Six major research questions and nine hypotheses were formulated to achieve the objectives of this study. Five major data sets were analysed: the Nepal Demographic and Health Survey 2006, and Nepal Adolescents and Young Adults Survey 2000 were used for the analysis of patterns and determinants of age at marriage of women in Nepal. The Nepal Living Standards Survey 2003-04 and the Child Marriage Study 2004 were analysed to demystify the mechanisms and factors associated with dowry in Nepal. Census 2001 data were also used at various points along with available ethnographic information. Both bivariate and multivariate analyses were deployed. Empirical analyses of data show three main patterns of age at marriage of women. First, early marriage especially prepubertal marriage of girls is declining in Nepal with a gradual increase in marriage age. Despite this decline, some of the Terai caste groups in particular, still marry their daughters before their fifteenth birthday. Second, the majority of girls among Terai caste and ethnic groups, Muslims and Hills lower-castes are still married between 15 and 17 years of age, that is, below 18, the legal age at marriage, which reveals the persistence of early marriage among these groups. Third, marriage is still universal and mandatory among women in Nepal. Most of the marriages among women are occurring between ages 15 and 24. Bivariate and multivariate analyses reveal that age of girls, rural-urban place of residence (at birth), education of girls and their mothers, age at menarche, caste/ethnicity and religion, and dowry were significantly associated with age at marriage. The prevalence of dowry among the Terai caste groups, compounded with sociocultural factors has a strong influence on the marriage timing of girls. Although geographic region was found to be associated with age at marriage both in bivariate and multivariate analyses, women from Terai caste-groups (Terai-origin) had much higher hazard of marrying younger than Hills caste/ethnic groups. At present Terai population represents people of three major types - Indigenous people of the Terai, Indian-origin people who migrated in different time periods, and Hills-origin people who migrated after the 1950s, so the Terai category seems inadequate and misleading in capturing demographic transitions including age at marriage and its determinants. The differences in marriage-related sociocultural norms and traditions between people of Terai-origin and of Hills/Mountains origin and the prevalence of dowry in the Terai further support this argument

How Useful are the Demographic Surveys in Explaining the Determinants of Early Marriage of Girls in Terai of Nepal?

In recent decades significant changes in Nepalese society have greatly contributed to the increase in age at marriage of girls in Nepal. Factors responsible for these changes include educational development, urbanization and development of mass communications. However, many parents still marry their daughters at very young ages and this practice is particularly prevalent in the Terai region. This paper examines several demographic data sets with a view to assessing their utility for understanding the determinants of early age of marriage of girls in the Terai. The Nepal Family Health Survey (1996), Nepal Demographic and Health Surveys (2001, 2006), the Nepal Adolescents and Young Adults Survey (1999) and the 2001 Population Census of Nepal describe changes in at marriage over time. Factors such as sex, religion, education, geographic region, place of residence (rural/urban), economic status of the household and of women, and occupation are included in these data sets. However, other factors such as age at menarche, dowry and cost of marriage and cross-border marriage migration, which have been found to affect the prevalence of the lower age at marriage of girls in the Terai region, have not been included in the existing demographic surveys. Findings from the current study suggest that these variables should be included in future demographic surveys

A comparison of composting and vermicomposting for the disposal of poultry waste

Context: Poultry products, mostly meat and eggs, provide affordable quality foodstuffs to human populations in Nepal. However, the poultry industry's by-products, such as litter and offal, also generate potential environmental and human health issues and need a sustainable method of management. Aims: The present study compared the effectiveness of vermicomposting by using an exotic earthworm species Eisenia fetida, or effective microorganism-based (EM) composting, of poultry litters in the Terai region of Nepal. Methods: Four types of poultry litter, namely, broiler cage litter (parent stock litter), broiler deep litter, commercial layer cage litter and layer deep litter, each combined with earthworms (vermicompost) or effective microorganisms, were subjected to decomposition in beds. A completely randomised design in a 4 × 2 factorial arrangement (poultry litters by Eisenia fetida or effective microorganism) with three replicates per treatment was applied. Key results: Macronutrient concentrations, and reduction of the carbon: nitrogen ratio were significantly greater in vermicompost than EM compost. In addition, reduction of the carbon: nitrogen ratio was more significant following vermicomposting for broiler and layer cage litter than in other treatments. The highest initial concentration of N was found in layer cage litter (2.1%) and the lowest in layer deep litter (1.3%) and these increased to 1.5-3.4% and 1.7-1.8% in vermicompost and EM compost respectively. Available phosphorus increased by two- to three-fold in most vermicomposted poultry litters in comparison to initial poultry litters, and a two-fold increase in potassium was likewise achieved. Consistent with these results, worm biomass was significantly higher in layer cage litter and broiler cage litter than in deep litter. More cocoons were evident in layer cage litter, and lowest numbers of cocoon formation were observed in broiler deep litter. Conclusions: This comparative study showed that vermicomposting is superior to EM composting for bioconversion of poultry litters into value-added compost. Implications: With the adoption of this result, the poultry industry in Nepal could become more sustainable

Girls’ Menstrual Management in Five Districts of Nepal: Implications for Policy and Practice

Discriminatory practices related to menstruation affect the social, mental and physical wellbeing of girls in many low-and middle-income countries. We conducted mixed methods research in five districts of Nepal to explore how menstruation affected girls’ ability to fully participate in school and community life. We conducted 860 structured interviews, 26 group interviews and 10 focus group discussions with schoolgirls in rural areas,14 semi-structured interviews with girls’ mothers, and 10 interviews with health teachers. Girls in all districts experienced social, material and information barriers to confident menstrual management. Menstrual blood was believed to carry diseases, and girls’ movement was restricted to contain ritual pollution and protect them from illness, spirit possession, and sexual experiences. Taboos prevented girls from worshipping in temples or in their home, and some girls were not allowed to enter the kitchen, or sleep in their home while menstruating. Teachers and parents felt unprepared to answer questions about menstruation and focused on the maintenance of restrictions. Teachers and students were embarrassed discussing menstruation in school and classes were not question-driven or skills-based. Gender disaggregated teaching of menstruation and engagement of health facility staff may have positive effects. Community participatory approaches that engage girls, their families and the wider community are necessary to address harmful cultural practices. Cross-sectoral approaches to provide clean, private, safe spaces for girls and increased availability of preferred materials could enable confident menstrual management