Ghazali\u27s Theory of Mystical Exercises, with Reference to Dhikr and Du‘ā’

We analyse, in this present essay, the structure of the thought of Ghazali (1058-1111), with a major emphasis on his theory of mystical exercises of dhikr and du‘ā’in a comparative perspective.The Ihyā\u27‘ulum al-dln, his magnum opus, which admits of no doubt of his authorship, is used as the principal source in an attempt to attain the minimum essential understanding of his thought as the basis for our further extended study.First, we describe Ghazali\u27s general idea of mystical exercises.The goal of the Sufi is, according to him, to have a foretaste in the ecstatic state of mystical experience (fanā\u27) of the bliss of seeing God (ru\u27yat Allāh, liqā\u27 Allāh) in the Hereafter.This fanā is the consummation of man\u27s complete denial of ego-consciousness in his love of God, as well as another“wound with love”for Him.Thus the Sufi attains by degrees to the highest state of the absolute single-heartedness (al-ikhlas al-mutlaq) in which he is solely concerned with God, freed from all else but Him.The method to reach this state, or the preparation on the part of man for this divine grace (fanā\u27), is mystical exercises, and dhikr and du‘ā’are the most important of them.Ghazali\u27s usages of dhikr are widely ranged from the Qur\u27anic to the specifically Sufi one.We may group them into five.First, it is an effort (takalluf) to turn man\u27s whole orientation from worldly things toward God by remembering Him constantly.Secondly, it is a kind of meditation on one\u27s own death, his perilous position before God, the Last Judgment, the happiness in Paradise, and others with a view to producing a particular mood in the heart which will be a stimulus to further effort.Thirdly, it is a vocal repetition of God\u27s name or a certain sacred formula to praise and glorify Him.This dhikr can be regarded as an auxiliary method to the previous types of mental dhikr.Thus a mere repetition of a formula is of no use unless it is accompanied by the presence of mind in the object of dhikr.Fourthly, it is the inner state of the Sufi in which he no longer needs any effort to turn his thought to God, since his sole concern is now centered on God alone.And he is ready for the next dhikr.Last, it is an intensive method to concentrate the mind upon a single object (God) without being disturbed by any thought by repeating uninterruptedly a simple formula like“Allāh”or“Subhana\u27llāh”as the final leap up to fanā\u27.In Ghazali\u27s thought, dhikr goes along with the whole process of the Sufi practices.As for du‘ā’, it does not show such a variety of usages.It is mainly used in the traditional sense of petition or humble request to God.As such, it is an expression of man\u27s essential relationship to God-man\u27s utter impotence and God\u27s omnipotence.There still remains in du‘ā’man\u27s will to petition, but even this disappears in the Sufi state of complete trust in God (tawakkul).Ghazali is not concerned much about the type of du‘ā’as“loving talk”(munājāt) between man and God in this higher state.Instead he is more interested in the effect of du‘ā’as a mystical exercise-the educational effect of cultivating the sense of man\u27s utter dependence upon God and constant reminding (dhikr) of Him.On some later occasion, we will discuss the characteristics of these usages of dhikr and du‘ā’in the general framework of“prayer,”and describe how they are effectively put into practice in daily life

Ghazali\u27s Theory of Mystical Exercises : with Reference to Dhikr and Du‘ā’

Following our previous examination of Ghazali\u27s idea of dhikr and du‘ā’in his general theory of mystical exercises in The Memoirs (No. 53), we first discuss in this issue how they are effectively put into practice in the daily life of the Sufi.Ghazali divides the whole day into twelve parts (wird), each of which consists of particular practices of dhikr and du‘ā’and other exercises.All this wird rules (and the prescribed supplications (du‘ā’) for unexpected events) are designed in such a way that as the Sufi performs them he is constantly reminded of God, the Creator, in his daily activities.We then try to identify Ghazali\u27s dhikr and du‘ā’and analyse them in terms of F. Heiler\u27s“prayer”and its typology.Heiler proposes two types of prayer: one is mystical (das mystische Gebet) and the other prophetic (das prophetische Gebet).The motive and form of mystical prayer are simple-ecstatic absorption and union with God by systematic annihilation of the self and detachment from the world.Prayer for the mystic, therefore, is preliminary and preparatory, and the verbal prayer of the mystic soon passes into wordless prayer and silent contemplation of God.On the other hand, the prophet is a man fighting as a“tool”of God to transform the world according to the revealed norms.He is always conscious of the presence of a living, personal God, but this conscoiusness does not lead to union with God as it does in the mystic.Because of this vital feeling of the nearness of God, the prophet turns to God and calls upon Him at everv moment of emotional upheaval in him mission, be it a crisis or a joyful exaltation. He prays to God for anything ranging from worldly things to spiritual values. Prayer for the prophet is essentially spontaneous, not methodical as it is for the mystic. Now ther is no question that Ghazali\u27s whole idea of "prayer" belongs to this category of mystical prayer, except the type of mental dhikr as meditative exercise of cultivating certain moods, methodically by remembering something other than god (Type II). Nonetheless, du‘ā’is apparently of prophetic type and as such it is extensively used in hormony with the whole scheme of Ghazali\u27s mystical exercises. How should we understand this? First of all, it is undeniably due to Ghazali\u27s preference of the Prophetic traditions (Sunna) to "mystical prayers" of his own and other Sufis\u27 composition. It is, however, mainly because of the fact that prophetic prayer is related to almost every accasion of ardinary men\u27s daily life without any restriction to the object of supplication as in mystical prayer. According to Ghazali\u27s contention, man\u27s concern gradually shifts from worldly things to God, the Ultimate, in his constant prayer to God, no matter what the object of prayer may be. Ghazali is more concerned with the inner attitude of the suppliant. In this idea of du‘ā’we see his careful, methodical consideration for the mystical goal. Furthermore, the combination of dhikr and du‘ā’, namely, that of mystical prayer with a strong prophetic elemet, as a mystical practice is very significant for the following reason. Dhikr, or repeated pronouncement of the divine name as the final step toward unity with God stresses by nature human initiative and the effort of man\u27s will. Gerein lies a grave danger of mitconstruing special gift of God as the result of his own work and claiming it for himself by means of a "guaranteed" technique. This danger is averted by the practice of du‘ā’which stresses the divibe initiative behind man\u27s act. In conclusion, Ghazali\u27s mystical prayer is strongly tinged with the prophetic element. This means for one thing that Ghazali\u27s mystical exercises are intended for ardinary men as well as the Sufi professionals - reinterpretation of the whole Islamic system in terms of Sufism. At the same time, his mystical thought is also highly prophetic and remains a preparetory method in the Sufi Way, there is littie room in Ghazali\u27s proyer for another important aspect of mystical prayer, that is, confidential and loving talk (munājāt) with God. (Concluded

The Study of al-Ghazālī and its Problems (I)

Abu Hamid al-Ghazālī (d. 1111) being one of the greatest Muslim thinkers comparable to St.Augustine or Thomas Aquinas in the Christian tradition, there is no wonder that so much attention has been paid to him and so many studies have been done on him by both Muslim and non-Muslim scholars.Even in Christendom, the study of al-Ghazālī (Algazel), or interest in his works at the least, goes far back to the Middle Ages when the Christian world was busy with transplanting the Greek philosophy through the Arabic translations.Al-Ghazālī\u27s Maqāsid al-Falāsifah, his compendium of philosophy (falsqfdh) was first put into Latin toward the end of the 12th century, and he was mainly known in Europe throughout the Middle Ages as the author of this work, and therefore supposed by mistake to be a“philosopher”(failasūf) himself.This misunderstanding is ascribed to the unfortunate fact that his“preface”to this Maqāsid dropped from its most Latin manuscripts for some so far unknown reasons during their circulation, so that it was little known that the compendium was but a preliminary step to his refutation of philosophy (in his later work, Tahāfut al-Falāsifah).This Tahāfut was also introduced to Europe in the meantime, but it did not so much contribute to improve the situation as to increase the confusion all the more among the scholars.Thus the myth of“a philosopher Algazel”itself lasted almost unimpaired until S. Munk finally demythologized it in the middle of the 19th century by correctly identifying al-Ghazālī\u27s true intention and thought.As more writings of al-Ghazālī came to be printed and published toward the end of the century, the study of al-Ghazālī made much progress.Profiting from all this study and that on Islamic history in general, D. B. Macdonald published his monumental study on al-Ghazālī at the turn of the century in an article,“The Life of al-Ghazzali”(1899), which laid the foundation for the subsequent study in this field.He also spotted and gave some proper pioneering discussions to the essential questions involved in the study, such as the problems of his“esoteric　teachings,”the authenticity of his writings, the causes of his retirement, and so forth.(To be continued

Neoadjuvant hormonal therapy for low-risk prostate cancer induces biochemical recurrence after radical prostatectomy via increased lymphangiogenesis-related parameters

Background: The effects of neoadjuvant hormonal therapy (NHT) on pathological features and lymphangiogenesis in patients with prostate cancer (PCa) for each pre-operative risk classification are unclear. Methods: To clarify the anti-cancer effects of NHT, we investigated 153 patients (non-NHT group?=?80 and NHT group?=?73) who underwent radical prostatectomy (RP) in Nagasaki University Hospital. Lymph vessel density and area (evaluated by D2-40-positive vessels), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-C and VEGF-D expressions, and biochemical recurrence (BCR)-free survival were compared between these two groups for each D\u27Amico risk classification (low?=?33, intermediate?=?58, high?=?62 patients). Results: In low-risk PCa patients, the risks of lymph vessel invasion and BCR were significantly higher in the NHT group than in the non-NHT group (P?=?0.040 and 0.022, respectively). Such significant difference was not seen in the intermediate- or high-risk PCa groups. Lymph vessel density of the peri-tumoral and intra-tumoral areas and the lymph vessel area were significantly higher (P?<?0.001) in the NHT group than in the non-NHT group in low-risk PCa. In regard to the expression of VEGF-C or VEGF-D, significant difference was not detected in low-risk PCa. Conclusions: NHT stimulated cancer cell progression and BCR via up-regulation of lymphangiogenesis-related parameters in patients with low-risk PCa. Although VEGF-C and VEGF-D expressions were not changed by NHT, lymph vessel density and area were increased in low-risk PCa patients. We suggest that NHT for patients with low-risk PCa may have a high risk for BCR after RP

Shoulder horizontal abduction stretching effectively increases shear elastic modulus of pectoralis minor muscle

Background: Stretching maneuvers for the pectoralis minor muscle, which involve shoulder horizontal abduction or scapular retraction, are performed in clinical and sports settings because the tightness of this muscle may contribute to scapular dyskinesis. The effectiveness of stretching maneuvers for the pectoralis minor muscle is unclear in vivo. The purpose of this study was to verify the effectiveness of stretching maneuvers for the pectoralis minor muscle in vivo using ultrasonic shear wave elastography. Methods: Eighteen healthy men participated in this study. Elongation of the pectoralis minor muscle was measured for 3 stretching maneuvers (shoulder flexion, shoulder horizontal abduction, and scapular retraction) at 3 shoulder elevation angles (30°, 90°, and 150°). The shear elastic modulus, used as the index of muscle elongation, was computed using ultrasonic shear wave elastography for the 9 aforementioned stretching maneuver-angle combinations. Results: The shear elastic modulus was highest in horizontal abduction at 150°, followed by horizontal abduction at 90°, horizontal abduction at 30°, scapular retraction at 30°, scapular retraction at 90°, scapular retraction at 150°, flexion at 150°, flexion at 90°, and flexion at 30°. The shear elastic moduli of horizontal abduction at 90° and horizontal abduction at 150° were significantly higher than those of other stretching maneuvers. There was no significant difference between horizontal abduction at 90° and horizontal abduction at 150°. Conclusions: This study determined that shoulder horizontal abduction at an elevation of 90° and horizontal abduction at an elevation of 150° were the most effective stretching maneuvers for the pectoralis minor muscle in vivo

Conversion to complete resection with mFOLFOX6 with bevacizumab or cetuximab based on K‐RAS status for unresectable colorectal liver metastasis (BECK study): Long‐term results of survival

[Background/Purpose]To investigate the long‐term outcome and entire treatment course of patients with technically unresectable CRLM who underwent conversion hepatectomy and to examine factors associated with conversion to hepatectomy. [Methods]Recurrence and survival data with long‐term follow‐up were analyzed in the cohort of a multi‐institutional phase II trial for technically unresectable colorectal liver metastases (the BECK study). [Results]A total of 22/12 patients with K‐RAS wild‐type/mutant tumors were treated with mFOLFOX6 + cetuximab/bevacizumab. The conversion R0/1 hepatectomy rate was significantly higher in left‐sided primary tumors than in right‐sided tumors (75.0% vs 30.0%, P = .022). The median follow‐up was 72.6 months. The 5‐year overall survival (OS) rate in the entire cohort was 48.1%. In patients who underwent R0/1 hepatectomy (n = 21), the 5‐year RFS rate and OS rate were 19.1% and 66.3%, respectively. At the final follow‐up, seven patients had no evidence of disease, five were alive with disease, and 20 had died from their original cancer. All 16 patients who achieved 5‐year survival underwent conversion hepatectomy, and 11 of them underwent further resection for other recurrences (median: 2, range: 1‐4). [Conclusions]Conversion hepatectomy achieved a similar long‐term survival to the results of previous studies in initially resectable patients, although many of them experienced several post‐hepatectomy recurrences. Left‐sided primary was found to be the predictor for conversion hepatectomy

Bile Duct Regeneration with an Artificial Bile Duct Made of Gelatin Hydrogel Nonwoven Fabrics

Although choledochojejunostomy is the standard technique for biliary reconstruction, there are various associated problems that need to be solved such as reflux cholangitis. Interposition with an artificial bile duct (ABD) to replace the resected bile duct maintains a physiological conduit for bile and may solve this problem. This study investigated the usefulness of an ABD made of gelatin hydrogel nonwoven fabric (GHNF). GHNF was prepared by the solution blow spinning method. The migration and activity of murine fibroblast L929 cells were examined in GHNF sheets. L929 cells migrated into GHNF sheets, where they proliferated and synthesized collagen, suggesting GHNF is a promising scaffold for bile duct regeneration. ABDs made of GHNF were implanted in place of resected bile duct segments in rats. The rats were killed at 2, 6, and 12 weeks postimplantation. The implantation site was histologically evaluated for bile duct regeneration. At postoperative 2 weeks, migrating cells were observed in the ABD pores. The implanted ABD was mostly degraded and replaced by collagen fibers at 6 weeks. Ki67-positive bile duct epithelial cells appeared within the implanted ABD. These were most abundant within the central part of the ABD after 6 weeks. The percentages of Ki67-positive cells were 31.7 ± 9.1% in the experimental group and 0.8 ± 0.6% in the sham operation group at 6 weeks (p < 0.05), indicating that mature biliary epithelial cells at the stump proliferated to regenerate the biliary epithelium. Biliary epithelial cells had almost completely covered the bile duct lumen at 12 weeks (epithelialization ratios: 10.4 ± 6.9% at 2 weeks, 93.1 ± 5.1% at 6 weeks, 99.2 ± 1.6% at 12 weeks). The regenerated epithelium was positive for the bile duct epithelium marker cytokeratin 19. Bile duct regeneration was accompanied by angiogenesis, as evidenced by the appearance of CD31-positive vascular structures. Capillaries were induced 2 weeks after implantation. The number of capillaries reached a maximum at 6 weeks and decreased to the same level as that of normal bile ducts at 12 weeks. These results showed that an ABD of GHNF contributed to successful bile duct regeneration in rats by facilitating the cell migration required for extracellular matrix synthesis, angiogenesis, and epithelialization. Impact Statement Development of an artificial bile duct (ABD) enables physiological biliary reconstruction and may solve clinical problems associated with choledochojejunostomy. In this study, we created ABDs with gelatin hydrogel nonwoven fabric and implanted them in place of resected bile duct in rats. We evaluated the process of bile duct regeneration as well as decomposition of the ABD and demonstrated successful regeneration of resected bile duct, highlighting the possibility of this novel biliary reconstruction method to replace choledochojejunostomy

ヤブラン アカ 5 ケイトウ ノ カンスイ テイコウ セイ ノ ヒカク

ヤブラン亜科の1栽培品種と4種,計5系統を供試植物として冠水抵抗性の違いについて比較した。冠水状態においた供試植物の生存率や葉数,根数,葉長,新芽数等の測定結果から,ジャノヒゲ,またはチャボリュウノヒゲ>ノシラン>オオバジャノヒゲ>ヤブランの順で冠水抵抗性があると判断できた。また冠水抵抗性に劣るヤブランやオオバジャノヒゲを冠水し,その水中に人為的に空気を送ると,枯死する個体が少なくなり,生育している個体の生体重や茎数,葉数の値が空気を送らない時に比べて大になった。これらの結果から冠水抵抗性の系統間差異の原因を考察した。It is known that Ophiopogon japonicus plants are able to survive in areas that remain flooded for long periods. In this study, we investigated differences in resistance to overhead flooding of five strains, all related species of Ophiopogonoideae in the Liliaeae, based on survival rate and measurements of number of leaves, roots, sprouts, and leaf length. Resistance to overhead flooding was shown to be in the following order : Ophiopogon japonicus, O. japonicus \u27Nanus\u27, O. jaburan, O. planiscapus and Liriope platyphylla. In O. planiscapus and L. platyphylla plants, their resistance to overhead flooding was lower, and they were found to survive better if the water was aerated. It has been suggested that the difference in resistance to overhead flooding is related to the morphology of the leaves or roots

Circadian protection against bacterial skin infection by epidermal CXCL14-mediated innate immunity

体内時計は夜間に自然免疫を発動 --皮膚ケモカインによる自然免疫機構--. 京都大学プレスリリース. 2022-06-16.Biological clocks set for skin immunity. 京都大学プレスリリース. 2022-06-21.The epidermis is the outermost layer of the skin and the body’s primary barrier to external pathogens; however, the early epidermal immune response remains to be mechanistically understood. We show that the chemokine CXCL14, produced by epidermal keratinocytes, exhibits robust circadian fluctuations and initiates innate immunity. Clearance of the skin pathogen Staphylococcus aureus in nocturnal mice was associated with CXCL14 expression, which was high during subjective daytime and low at night. In contrast, in marmosets, a diurnal primate, circadian CXCL14 expression was reversed. Rhythmically expressed CXCL14 binds to S. aureus DNA and induces inflammatory cytokine production by activating Toll-like receptor (TLR)9-dependent innate pathways in dendritic cells and macrophages underneath the epidermis. CXCL14 also promoted phagocytosis by macrophages in a TLR9-independent manner. These data indicate that circadian production of the epidermal chemokine CXCL14 rhythmically suppresses skin bacterial proliferation in mammals by activating the innate immune system