Source Imaging with Dense Sensor Networks: Inversions Based on Adjoint Methods

Inversions of earthquake source slip from the recorded ground motions typically impose a number of restrictions on the source parameterization, which are needed to stabilize the inverse problem with sparse data. Such restrictions may include smoothing, causality considerations, predetermined shapes of the local source-time function, and constant rupture speed. The best regional networks have sensor spacing in the tens of kilometers range, much larger than the wavelengths relevant to key aspects of earthquake physics. Novel approaches to providing orders-of-magnitude denser sensing include low-cost sensors (Community Seismic Network) and space-based optical imaging (Geostationary Optical Seismometer). This thesis aims to understand whether the inversion results could be substantially improved, with fewer constraints, by the availability of much denser sensor networks than currently available. Inversions that involve large number of sensors and 3D crustal velocity models are intractable with the current source inversion codes. Hence we have developed a new approach that can handle thousands of sensors in heterogeneous media. It employs iterative conjugate gradient optimization based on an adjoint method and involves iterative time-reversed 3D wave propagation simulations using the spectral element method (SPECFEM3D). We have also developed a variant of this adjoint-based method for layered media that utilizes pre-computed Green’s functions instead of the time-reversed wave propagation. The developed methods have been applied to two problems: impact of crustal structure uncertainties on source inversion and resolution of rise time as a function of network spacing and rupture velocity. In the first part, we show that typical uncertainties in crustal velocity models represented by a von Karman distribution of 5 km correlation length and 5% standard deviation (with Hurst exponent of zero), severely degrade the quality of source inversion. However, if the velocity uncertainties have a correlation of 500 m or a standard deviation of 1%, then source inversion has an adequate quality. In the second part we find that supershear ruptures show almost identical source recovery in terms of width of the slip pulse for network spacings ranging from few km to tens of km, even for rise times as short as 1 sec, while subshear ruptures require a network spacing finer than a penetration length that depends on rupture velocity and rise time, as their peak ground velocity decay rapidly with distance from the fault. In summary, we have developed scalable source inversion tools that will enable exploiting the next generation of very dense earthquake observation systems, improvements in regional scale 3D tomography models and accelerated advancements in computing capabilities. These developments will be critical in resolving the fine spatio-temporal features of earthquake sources that are pertinent to fracture mechanics and earthquake physics. With the 3D iterative time-reversal imaging, one could aspire for extracting more information from the high frequency wavefield by considering joint improvement of source and structure.</p

Resolution of Rise Time in Earthquake Slip Inversions: Effect of Station Spacing and Rupture Velocity

Earthquake finite‐source inversions provide us with a window into earthquake dynamics and physics. Unfortunately, rise time, an important source parameter that describes the local slip duration, is still quite poorly resolved. This may be at least partly due to sparsity of currently available seismic networks, which have average sensor spacing of a few tens of kilometers at best. However, next generation observation systems could increase the density of sensing by orders of magnitude. Here, we explore whether such dense networks would improve the resolution of the rise time in idealized scenarios. We consider steady‐state pulselike ruptures with spatially uniform slip, rise time, and rupture speed and either Haskell or Yoffe slip‐rate function on a vertical strike‐slip fault. Synthetic data for various network spacings are generated by forward wave propagation simulations, and then source inversions are carried out using that data. The inversions use a nonparametric linear inversion method that does not impose any restrictions on rupture complexity, rupture velocity, or rise time. We show that rupture velocity is an important factor in determining the rise‐time resolution. For sub‐Rayleigh rupture speeds, there is a characteristic length related to the decay of the wavefield away from the fault that depends on rupture speed and rise time such that only networks with smaller station spacings can adequately resolve the rise time. For supershear ruptures, the wavefield contains homogeneous S waves the decay of which is much slower, and an adequate resolution of the rise time can be achieved for all station spacings considered in this study (up to few tens of kilometers). Finally, we find that even if dense measurements come at the expense of large noise (e.g., 1  cm/s noise for space‐based optical systems), the conclusions on the performance of dense networks still hold

Effect of induced seismicity on advanced gravitational wave interferometers

Advanced LIGO and the next generation of ground-based detectors aim to capture many more binary coalescences through improving sensitivity and duty cycle. Earthquakes have always been a limiting factor at low frequency where neither the pendulum suspension nor the active controls provide sufficient isolation to the test mass mirrors. Several control strategies have been proposed to reduce the impact of teleseismic events by switching to a robust configuration with less aggressive feedback. The continental United States has witnessed a huge increase in the number of induced earthquake events primarily associated with hydraulic fracking-related waste water re-injection. Effects from these differ from teleseismic earthquakes primarily because of their depth which is in turn linked to their triggering mechanism. In this paper, we discuss the impact caused due to these low magnitude regional earthquakes and explore ways to minimize the impact of induced seismicity on the detector.Comment: 12 pages, 11 figures; matches published versio

Population properties of compact objects from the second LIGO-Virgo gravitational-wave transient catalog

We report on the population of 47 compact binary mergers detected with a false-alarm rate of 0.01 are dynamically assembled. Third, we estimate merger rates, finding RBBH = 23.9-+8.614.3 Gpc-3 yr-1 for BBHs and RBNS = 320-+240490 Gpc-3 yr-1 for binary neutron stars. We find that the BBH rate likely increases with redshift (85% credibility) but not faster than the star formation rate (86% credibility). Additionally, we examine recent exceptional events in the context of our population models, finding that the asymmetric masses of GW190412 and the high component masses of GW190521 are consistent with our models, but the low secondary mass of GW190814 makes it an outlier. © 2021. The American Astronomical Society. All rights reserved

Finite-fault source inversion using adjoint methods in 3D heterogeneous media

Accounting for lateral heterogeneities in the 3-D velocity structure of the crust is known to improve earthquake source inversion, compared to results based on 1-D velocity models which are routinely assumed to derive finite-fault slip models. The conventional approach to include known 3-D heterogeneity in source inversion involves pre-computing 3-D Green’s functions, which requires a number of 3-D wave propagation simulations proportional to the number of stations or to the number of fault cells. The computational cost of such an approach is prohibitive for the dense data sets that could be provided by future earthquake observation systems. Here, we propose an adjoint-based optimization technique to invert for the spatio-temporal evolution of slip velocity. The approach does not require pre-computed Green’s functions. The adjoint method provides the gradient of the cost function, which is used to improve the model iteratively employing an iterative gradient-based minimization method. The adjoint approach is shown to be computationally more efficient than the conventional approach based on pre-computed Green’s functions in a broad range of situations. We consider data up to 1 Hz from a Haskell source scenario (a steady pulse-like rupture) on a vertical strike-slip fault embedded in an elastic 3-D heterogeneous velocity model. The velocity model comprises a uniform background and a 3-D stochastic perturbation with the von Karman correlation function. Source inversions based on the 3-D velocity model are performed for two different station configurations, a dense and a sparse network with 1 and 20 km station spacing, respectively. These reference inversions show that our inversion scheme adequately retrieves the rise time when the velocity model is exactly known, and illustrates how dense coverage improves the inference of peak-slip velocities. We investigate the effects of uncertainties in the velocity model by performing source inversions based on an incorrect, homogeneous velocity model. We find that, for velocity uncertainties that have standard deviation and correlation length typical of available 3-D crustal models, the inverted sources can be severely contaminated by spurious features even if the station density is high. When data from thousand or more receivers is used in source inversions in 3-D heterogeneous media, the computational cost of the method proposed in this work is at least two orders of magnitude lower than source inversion based on pre-computed Green’s functions

Search for gravitational waves from Scorpius X-1 with a hidden Markov model in O3 LIGO data

Results are presented for a semicoherent search for continuous gravitational waves from the low-mass x-ray binary Scorpius X-1, using a hidden Markov model (HMM) to allow for spin wandering. This search improves on previous HMM-based searches of Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory data by including the orbital period in the search template grid, and by analyzing data from the latest (third) observing run. In the frequency range searched, from 60 to 500 Hz, we find no evidence of gravitational radiation. This is the most sensitive search for Scorpius X-1 using a HMM to date. For the most sensitive subband, starting at 256.06 Hz, we report an upper limit on gravitational wave strain (at 95% confidence) of h095%=6.16×10-26, assuming the orbital inclination angle takes its electromagnetically restricted value ι=44°. The upper limits on gravitational wave strain reported here are on average a factor of ∼3 lower than in the second observing run HMM search. This is the first Scorpius X-1 HMM search with upper limits that reach below the indirect torque-balance limit for certain subbands, assuming ι=44°. © 2022 American Physical Society. All rights reserved

First joint observation by the underground gravitational-wave detector KAGRA with GEO 600

We report the results of the first joint observation of the KAGRA detector with GEO600. KAGRA is a cryogenic and underground gravitational-wave detector consisting of a laser interferometer with 3km arms, located in Kamioka, Gifu, Japan. GEO600 is a British-German laser interferometer with 600m arms, located near Hannover, Germany. GEO600 and KAGRA performed a joint observing run from April 7 to 20, 2020. We present the results of the joint analysis of the GEO-KAGRA data for transient gravitational-wave signals, including the coalescence of neutron-star binaries and generic unmodeled transients. We also perform dedicated searches for binary coalescence signals and generic transients associated with gamma-ray burst events observed during the joint run. No gravitational-wave events were identified. We evaluate the minimum detectable amplitude for various types of transient signals and the spacetime volume for which the network is sensitive to binary neutron-star coalescences. We also place lower limits on the distances to the gamma-ray bursts analyzed based on the non-detection of an associated gravitational-wave signal for several signal models, including binary coalescences. These analyses demonstrate the feasibility and utility of KAGRA as a member of the global gravitational-wave detector network

Search for continuous gravitational wave emission from the Milky Way center in O3 LIGO-Virgo data

We present a directed search for continuous gravitational wave (CW) signals emitted by spinning neutron stars located in the inner parsecs of the Galactic Center (GC). Compelling evidence for the presence of a numerous population of neutron stars has been reported in the literature, turning this region into a very interesting place to look for CWs. In this search, data from the full O3 LIGO-Virgo run in the detector frequency band [10,2000] Hz have been used. No significant detection was found and 95% confidence level upper limits on the signal strain amplitude were computed, over the full search band, with the deepest limit of about 7.6×10-26 at ≃142 Hz. These results are significantly more constraining than those reported in previous searches. We use these limits to put constraints on the fiducial neutron star ellipticity and r-mode amplitude. These limits can be also translated into constraints in the black hole mass-boson mass plane for a hypothetical population of boson clouds around spinning black holes located in the GC. © 2022 American Physical Society. All rights reserved

All-sky search for gravitational wave emission from scalar boson clouds around spinning black holes in LIGO O3 data

This paper describes the first all-sky search for long-duration, quasimonochromatic gravitational-wave signals emitted by ultralight scalar boson clouds around spinning black holes using data from the third observing run of Advanced LIGO. We analyze the frequency range from 20 to 610 Hz, over a small frequency derivative range around zero, and use multiple frequency resolutions to be robust towards possible signal frequency wanderings. Outliers from this search are followed up using two different methods, one more suitable for nearly monochromatic signals, and the other more robust towards frequency fluctuations. We do not find any evidence for such signals and set upper limits on the signal strain amplitude, the most stringent being ≈10-25 at around 130 Hz. We interpret these upper limits as both an "exclusion region"in the boson mass/black hole mass plane and the maximum detectable distance for a given boson mass, based on an assumption of the age of the black hole/boson cloud system. © 2022 American Physical Society. All rights reserved