Fertilizer Use and Maize Production in Sub-Saharan Africa

In sub-Saharan Africa, greater use of mineral fertilizers is crucial to increasing food production and slowing the rate of environmental degradation. Regional growth rates in fertilizer consumption have never been particularly high, in part because the real price of fertilizer is higher in Africa than in many other developing regions. As subsidies have been removed and exchange-rate distortions corrected over the past decade or more, relative prices paid by farmers have risen to reflect more closely the economic cost of fertilizer. Consumption growth has thus slowed even more. Nonetheless, during the period of declining growth in consumption, fertilizer use on cereals, particularly maize, has become relatively more important than use on cash crops. Strategies for increasing fertilizer use should thus direct more attention to maize and other important staples. In higher potential areas, some fertilizer use on maize is often economically profitable even at higher relative prices of fertilizer. Additional research on the limiting nutrient under farmers' conditions or on the interactions between nutrients and other crop-management factors could help to increase profitability. Policy analysis for Africa�s fertilizer sector has tended to focus on subsidies and to neglect other important issues, such as solving credit problems at many points in the marketing channel, supporting appropriate agricultural research, and developing and maintaining infrastructure. Agricultural sector strategies that give sufficient attention to these issues must be developed. Although subsidy removal must be one ultimate policy objective, we recommend gradual withdrawal in countries where fertilizer consumption levels are relatively high. Because many African governments require time and stability to develop policy capacity, detailed institutional analyses can help design second-best solutions to problems of fertilizer policy.Crop Production/Industries,

Farm level derived demand responses for fertilizer in Kenya: a research proposal

The primary purpose of this research is to attempt to provide quantitative information at farm level on derived demand for fertilizers. In this research an attempt will also be made to assess the impact of such policy variables as fertilizer subsidies, product prices, interest rate on demand functions for fertilizer and hence on optimal farm organizations based on representative farms. In deriving these demand functions the techniques of static and parametric linear programming will be used

MAIZE BREEDING RESEARCH IN EASTERN AND SOUTHERN AFRICA: CURRENT STATUS AND IMPACTS OF PAST INVESTMENTS MADE BY THE PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SECTORS, 1966-97

This report documents the impacts of international maize breeding research in eastern and southern Africa. It draws on information from a comprehensive 1998/99 survey of public and private maize breeding and seed production organizations active in the region. In many countries of eastern and southern Africa, policy reforms introduced in the 1980s and 1990s encouraged private sector participation in the maize seed industry. The private sector now supplies most of the maize seed in the region, spends more on research, and generates a larger number of maize releases than the public sector. Hybrids dominate varietal releases and seed sales, a trend that may negatively affect subsistence-oriented farmers who lack resources to buy fresh seed every season. Although farmers' adoption of improved maize varies throughout the region, it has increased steadily. Survey data show that CIMMYT's maize breeding program has had significant impacts in eastern and southern Africa, especially in recent years. Of the maize varieties released in the region since 1990, 31% (55% if South Africa is excluded) were developed using CIMMYT breeding materials. In 1996, more than 1.6 million hectares in eastern and southern Africa were planted to varieties developed using CIMMYT germplasm. The varietal release data and adoption data indicate growing demand for CIMMYT breeding materials from both public and private breeding programs, as well as growing acceptance by farmers of varieties developed using those materials.Agribusiness,

FACTORS AFFECTING ADOPTION OF IMPROVED MAIZE SEEDS AND USE OF INORGANIC FERTILIZER FOR MAIZE PRODUCTION IN THE INTERMEDIATE AND LOWLAND ZONES OF TANZANIA

This paper examines factors influencing the adoption of improved maize seeds and the use of inorganic fertilizer for maize production by farmers in the intermediate and lowland zones of Tanzania. The results indicate that availability of extension services, on-farm field trials, variety characteristics and rainfall were the most important factors that influenced the extent of adopting improved maize seeds and the use of inorganic fertilizer for maize production. Farmers preferred those varieties which minimize field loss rather than maximizing yields. Future research and extension policies should emphasize farmer participation in the research process and on-farm trials for varietal evaluation and demonstration purposes.adoption, agroecological zones, improved maize seeds, new technology, Tanzania, Crop Production/Industries,

Wheat Farmers' Seed Management and Varietal Adoption in Kenya

Wheat is the second most important crop in Kenya after maize and is becoming an important source of food both for humans and livestock. Despite increasing wheat production, only 50% of domestic consumption requirements are being met. While the National Plant Breeding Research Centre at the Kenya Agricultural Research Institute has released more than 100 wheat varieties since it began operations in 1927, adoption has been slow in spite of better performance of new varieties. This study examined factors that influence farmers' adoption of new varieties in the Narok, Nakuru, and Uasin Gishu Districts that account for 80% of Kenya's domestic wheat production. The study found that most farmers in these Districts neither knew nor grew new wheat varieties, reflecting lack of seed and knowledge of these new varieties. Wheat varieties were also often not adopted in agroecological zones for which they were targeted. This should be an issue of concern to wheat breeders since varieties are currently bred specifically for agroecological zones. The main sources of wheat seed (old and new) for both small-scale and large-scale farmers were other farmers. The adoption of new wheat varieties was significantly higher among large-scale farmers in the high potential zone in Uasin Gishu District than among small-scale farmers in the low potential zone in Nakuru and Narok Districts. The logit model showed that experience in wheat farming had a positive impact on adoption of new wheat varieties. These factors will need to be taken into account by researchers, extension specialists, and policy makers.Crop Production/Industries,

ADOPTION OF MAIZE AND WHEAT TECHNOLOGIES IN EASTERN AFRICA: A SYNTHESIS OF THE FINDINGS OF 22 CASE STUDIES

This paper synthesizes the findings of 22 micro-level studies on technology adoption carried out by the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) with national agricultural research systems in Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda from 1996-1999. The authors found that technology adoption is taking place across Eastern Africa but considerable scope remains to improve the productivity of smallholder agriculture in higher potential regions with high levels of adoption. Extension was the variable most highly correlated with technology adoption, and extension services continue to play an important role in disseminating information on new varieties and how to manage them. Despite the usefulness of the micro-study results, especially for priority setting and impact assessment, future adoption studies can be improved by standardizing definitions across studies and using sampling techniques that allow results to be generalized across wider areas. Finally, the paper suggests that maize and wheat breeding research should be made more relevant to the preferences and circumstances of farmers, that the link between research and extension should be strengthened and include the private sector and non-governmental organizations, that policies should support the development and expansion of efficient markets for inputs and outputs, and that rural credit systems should be strengthened.Maize, Wheat, Innovation adoption, Technology transfer, Plant Breeding, Small farms, Case studies, Fertilizers, Private sector, Nongovernmental organizations, Research institutions, International organizations, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Farm Management,

Adoption of Maize Production Technologies in the Coastal Lowlands of Kenya

Maize is the major food crop grown in the coastal region of Kenya and constitutes a major component of the diet of the population in the region. However, average yields are far below the potential for the region and low production levels create serious food deficits. Over the years, new technologies have been introduced but adoption has remained low, especially for fertilizer. This paper examined current maize-farming practices and technological and socioeconomic factors that influenced adoption in the Kilifi and Kwale Districts of the Coast Province, that together account for half of maize production in the region. The study found low adoption levels for improved maize varieties and technology, especially fertilizer, among farmers in the area. Farmers cited poor availability of improved varieties, high cost, lack of knowledge, and unfavourable characteristics of improved varieties as reasons for non-adoption. The high price and poor availability of fertilizers, farmers’ inexperience with them, and their perception that soils were already fertile were among reasons given for low fertilizer use. The low levels of adoption of improved varieties indicate that they are not meeting farmers’ needs. The authors recommend that researchers communicate with and include farmers’ criteria when breeding varieties. In addition, alternative options should be extended to farmers who are not able to use inorganic fertilizers. Finally, given the major influence of the institutional environment found in the study, it is recommended that extension services be strengthened, especially where lack of knowledge was cited as a hindrance to adoption.Maize, Crops, Innovation adoption, Technology transfer, Food production, Production economics, Production factors, Plant breeding, Fertilizers, Yields, Kenya, Crop Production/Industries, E14, E16,

Adoption of Improved Wheat Technologies by Small-Scale Farmers in Mbeya District, Southern Highlands, Tanzania

This study was conducted to gain an understanding of how small-scale farmers in Mbeya District have adopted improved wheat technologies promoted by the wheat research program at MARTI-Uyole. The specific objectives were to assess farmers’ wheat management practices, determine the technical and socioeconomic factors affecting the adoption of improved wheat technologies, and draw implications for research, extension, and policy. A purposive multistage sampling procedure was used to select 202 farmers, 160 from Tembela Division and 42 from Isangati Division, which are two important wheat-growing areas in Mbeya District. Primary data were collected using structured questionnaires and supplemented by secondary information obtained from MARTI-Uyole. Juhudi was the preferred improved wheat variety grown by adopters. For all farmers, the most important characteristics preferred in a variety were high yield, marketability, grain color, and early maturity. In 1997, about 74% of sample farmers adopted improved wheat varieties. The rate of adoption increased between 1989 and 1995 for a number of reasons, including provision of seed and fertilizer by Sasakawa Global-2000 (SG-2000), the collapse of the pyrethrum industry, and market liberalization. After 1995, adoption declined because SG-2000 was phased out and the varieties had succumbed to stem rust and foliar diseases. Tobit analysis showed that farm size, family size, and the use of hired labor were significant factors affecting the proportion of land allocated to improved wheat. Farm size, family size, hired labor, and credit all significantly affected the amount of fertilizer used. Additional improved varieties need to be developed, not only to replace the old varieties, but to give farmers a wider choice. Fertilizer recommendations need to be reviewed to take into consideration farmers’ circumstances such as cash availability and soil fertility. Extension services in the area should be increased and the link between extension workers and landholders strengthened to promote the adoption of improved wheat technologies. The formal credit market is only weakly involved in supplying credit to wheat farmers, but rising input prices, especially for fertilizer, make access to credit increasingly important for farmers. Policymakers and bankers should focus on providing loans to small-scale wheat farmers with high rates of loan recovery and low cost of credit. Farmers should also be encouraged to form their own savings and credit cooperatives at the village level. Policymakers should continue to encourage and support the private sector to invest in input acquisition and distribution so that inputs (especially seed and fertilizer) are available when farmers need them.Tanzania, wheats, varieties, innovation adoption, technology transfer, economic indicators, socioeconomic environment, plant breeding methods, research programs, crop management, fertilizer application, food production, small farms, highlands, Crop Production/Industries, E14, E30,

The Seed Industry for Dryland Crops in Eastern Kenya

The development and promotion of improved crop varieties as well as efficient seed production, distribution, and marketing systems have contributed significantly to increased agricultural production and food security in Kenya. However, these impacts have not been replicated in the semi-arid midlands due to climatic, soil, and institutional factors. Following the liberalization of agriculture in the late 1980s, there has been greater participation of the private sector, non-governmental organizations, and voluntary agencies in the area. This study examined the extent to which these developments affected farmers’ access to dryland crops. The study found that the low quantity of seed traded, high cost of production, and high seed supply prices constrained the development of local seed trade. It recommended developing and offering a range of varieties to farmers to increase demand, training to strengthen farmers’ capacity to manage seed on-farm, and reduction of high production and distribution costs through further research and institutional improvements. In addition, the “seed loans” model, which has been very effective in the area, should be strengthened.Agricultural situation, Seed industry, Seed production, Food security, Marketing, Production costs, Distribution costs, Private sector, Public sector, Farmers, Farming systems, Dry farming, Crop husbandry, Kenya, Crop Production/Industries, E16, F01,

Antimicrobial activities of a novel biflavonoid and other constituents from Rhus natalensis

Phytochemical studies on Rhus natalensis root bark collected from Kenya led to the isolation and identification of a new biflavonoid (3-(1-(2,4-dihydroxyphenyl)-3,3-bis(4-hydroxyphenyl)-1-oxopropan-2- yl)-7-methoxy-4H-chromone-4-one (1), named rhuschromone, in addition to two other known compounds; 2',4'-dihydroxychalcone-(4-O-5''')-4'',2''',4'''-trihydroxychalcone (2) and 3-((Z)-heptadec-13- enyl) benzene-1,2-diol (3). The chemical structures of the isolated compounds were established using spectroscopic techniques including high field nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). The total extracts and the isolated compounds were tested for their antimicrobial activities against different strains of bacteria