The Measurement of Self-Regulation from Ages 2 to 8

The development of the capacity for self-regulation represents a major achievement of childhood that is associated with social, behavioural and academic competence. Most research has focused on self-regulated academic learning in school-aged children and adolescents, neglecting developmental aspects of self-regulation. This paper reports a longitudinal study of 44 children from early to middle childhood. At age 2, the Goodman Lock Box provided information about the extent to which children’s approaches were systematic and planful, as opposed to random, impulsive and disorganised. The same measure was used in a modified form at age 8, and two additional measures of planning and self-control were added: the Porteus Maze Test and the Grocery Shopping Task. At both ages, Lock Box competence was related to planfulness, and there was a significant correlation of Lock Box competence across the two ages. However, the various measures of self-regulation were unrelated. Several measurement issues are highlighted, in particular the difficulties associated with making assumptions about the intent and meaning of children’s task behaviours

Changing Student Teachers' Attitudes Towards Disability and Inclusion

A total of 274 preservice teacher education students were surveyed at the beginning and end of a one-semester unit on Human Development and Education which combined formal instruction with structured fieldwork experiences. The latter included interviewing community members regarding their knowledge of Down syndrome and opinions on inclusive education, and writing an associated report. At the end of semester, not only had student teachers acquired more accurate knowledge of Down syndrome, together with more positive attitudes towards the inclusive education of children with Down syndrome, but their attitudes towards disability in general had also changed, and they reported greater ease when interacting with people with disabilities. The study illustrated the value of combining information-based instruction with structured fieldwork experiences in changing attitudes towards disability and inclusion. It also demonstrated that raising awareness of one disability may lead to changes in attitudes towards disability in general

The affective impact of inclusive secondary mathematics for learners with Down syndrome: "I just love it!"

Curriculum decisions about what mathematics should be taught to students with Down syndrome in secondary school are often based on utilitarian goals and assessments of current attainment. We report in this paper on the effect of an alternative approach - adjusting the standard mathematics curriculum for the year level - on students’ affective responses. Using three vignettes and the Educational Quality of Life framework we draw out implications for curriculum design for learners with Down syndrome, and more broadly, those with intellectual disability. We conclude by arguing for factoring in the impact on the affective domain of teaching the year-level mathematics curriculum, adjusted as required

Self-regulation: A new perspective on learning problems experienced by children born extremely preterm

Survival rates are increasing for children born extremely preterm, yet despite the majority of these children having IQ scores within the average range, 50-70% of these children have later school difficulties. This paper reviews factors associated with academic difficulties in these children, emphasizing the contributions of executive functions (EF) and self-regulation. The roles of EF are examined separately, and also under the unifying construct of self-regulation; that is, the integration of various behavioural, cognitive, and affective elements. Improving self-regulatory skills could moderate the negative effects of EF deficits and inform interventions to improve the educational outcomes of these childre

Psychometric properties of parenting measures in Indonesia

We examined the psychometric properties of two parenting measures, the Parenting Styles and Dimensions Questionnaire (PSDQ) and the Parent-Child Relationships Questionnaire (PCRQ) which were translated into Indonesian for use in Indonesia. The Indonesian versions of these questionnaires were completed by 514 parents and 459 parents, respectively. Participants were parents (mostly mothers) of typically developing children, who completed the measures through an online or paper-based survey. Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA), parallel analyses, internal and external construct validity, and internal reliability were performed on both measures. Results revealed that the translated version of the PSDQ consisted of three factors. Two of these factors reflected the Authoritative and Authoritarian subscales of the original measure; however, the Permissive subscale was not obtained. A third factor, labelled Reasoning, was extracted. The translated PCRQ was found to have the same structure as the original version of the measure. Some modifications were required for both instruments, and the modified versions of the instruments had acceptable internal consistency. Development of these translated and modified instruments will support parenting research within Indonesia

Parenting satisfaction and self-efficacy: A longitudinal study of mothers of children with Down syndrome

Continuities and changes in parenting sense of competence were examined for mothers of children with Down syndrome from early childhood to adolescence. The sample comprised 25 mothers whose child with Down syndrome was aged 4-6 years in the first phase of the study, and 11-15 years at the second time point. Maternal satisfaction with parenting increased over time, but there were no changes in parenting self-efficacy. Scores on these measures were no different from those reported in a normative sample of mothers of typically developing children, suggesting that the challenges of parenting a child with Down syndrome do not impact significantly on parenting sense of competence during the early childhood and adolescent periods. There were some significant relationships of maternal sense of competence with child characteristics and self-reported parenting style, mostly in the expected direction

Factor structure of the parenting sense of competence scale using a normative sample

Background The Parenting Sense of Competence (PSOC) scale is a commonly used measure of parental self-efficacy. Previous investigations of the factor structure of this instrument have been unsatisfactory and there is no adequate normative group against which at-risk groups can be compared. Methods A non-clinical sample of 586 mothers and 615 fathers completed the PSOC. Results Factor analysis produced three acceptable factors (Satisfaction, Efficacy, Interest) that accounted for 47.3% and 50.1% of the variance for mothers and fathers, respectively. Mothers reported higher efficacy than fathers, and fathers reported greater satisfaction with the parenting role than did mothers. Conclusions The PSOC contains three useful factors that reflect satisfaction with the parental role, parenting efficacy and interest in parenting. The paper provides normative data against which at-risk groups can be compared

The Importance of Self-regulation in Young Children with Down Syndrome

Adulthood brings with it responsibilities for making choices and decisions about one's own life. Individuals with Down syndrome, their parents and communities, have begun to expect at least some of these responsibilities will be met by the person with Down syndrome. This will require a range of skills in managing one's own behaviour and these skills will need to be acquired in childhood. The Down Syndrome Research Program has begun a number of investigations into two important aspects of self-regulation - the capacity to delay gratification and mastery motivation. This paper describes the importance of these skills and habits of behaviour to those with Down syndrome and discusses the research to date

Mastery Motivation: Stability and Predictive Validity from Ages Two to Eight

Forty-three children participated in a longitudinal study of mastery motivation. Children's levels of mastery motivation (persistence) and cognitive functioning were measured at ages 2 and 8. In addition, academic achievement was measured at age 8. Task persistence was stable across time for girls only, but maternal reports of mastery motivation were not consistent across the two ages for either gender. Maternal reports, but not task persistence, at age 2 predicted cognitive functioning and academic achievement at age 8 for girls. No predictive relationships were evident for boys, and boys were significantly less persistent than girls with a task requiring sustained effort at age 8. The findings offer empirical support for the view that early motivation is important for later functioning. Significant gender differences suggest that, in this respect, girls and boys may develop differently or be influenced by different contextual experiences. The need for educators to base their practice on a more complete understanding of how motivation develops in both boys and girls is stressed

Developmental Expectations, Personality Stereotypes, and Attitudes Towards Inclusive Education: Community and Teacher Views of Down Syndrome

Knowledge about Down syndrome and attitudes towards the educational inclusion of children with Down syndrome were examined in a sample of 2,053 people from the community and a group of 538 experienced teachers. Although both groups displayed reasonably accurate knowledge about Down syndrome and its developmental consequences, they significantly underestimated the average life expectancy for a person with the syndrome. In both groups, a positive stereotype of children with Down syndrome as particularly affectionate and happy was evident. Despite recognising the educational, social, and emotional benefits of inclusive schooling, only around 20% of each group believed that the regular classroom was the best setting for children with Down syndrome. The findings suggest that accurate knowledge and positive, but realistic, expectations are important for enhancing the acceptance of individuals with disabilities within their schools and communities