Orexin-1 receptor-cannabinoid CB1 receptor heterodimerization results in both ligand-dependent and -independent coordinated alterations of receptor localization and function

Following inducible expression in HEK293 cells, the human orexin-1 receptor was targeted to the cell surface but became internalized following exposure to the peptide agonist orexin A. By contrast, constitutive expression of the human cannabinoid CB1 receptor resulted in a predominantly punctate, intracellular distribution pattern consistent with spontaneous, agonistindependent internalization. Expression of the orexin-1 receptor in the presence of the CB1 receptor resulted in both receptors displaying the spontaneous internalization phenotype. Single cell fluorescence resonance energy transfer imaging indicated the two receptors were present as heterodimers/oligomers in intracellular vesicles. Addition of the CB1 receptor antagonist SR-141716A to cells expressing only the CB1 receptor resulted in re-localization of the receptor to the cell surface. Although SR-141716A has no significant affinity for the orexin-1 receptor, in cells co-expressing the CB1 receptor, the orexin-1 receptor was also re-localized to the cell surface by treatment with SR-141716A. Treatment of cells co-expressing the orexin-1 and CB1 receptors with the orexin-1 receptor antagonist SB-674042 also resulted in re-localization of both receptors to the cell surface. Treatment with SR-141716A resulted in decreased potency of orexin A to activate the mitogen-activated protein kinases ERK1/2 only in cells co-expressing the two receptors. Treatment with SB-674042 also reduced the potency of a CB1 receptor agonist to phosphorylate ERK1/2 only when the two receptors were co-expressed. These studies introduce an entirely novel pharmacological paradigm, whereby ligands modulate the function of receptors for which they have no significant inherent affinity by acting as regulators of receptor heterodimers

Widespread mitochondrial depletion via mitophagy does not compromise necroptosis

Programmed necrosis (or necroptosis) is a form of cell death triggered by the activation of receptor interacting protein kinase-3 (RIPK3). Several reports have implicated mitochondria and mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation as effectors of RIPK3-dependent cell death. Here, we directly test this idea by employing a method for the specific removal of mitochondria via mitophagy. Mitochondria-deficient cells were resistant to the mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis, but efficiently died via tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-induced, RIPK3-dependent programmed necrosis or as a result of direct oligomerization of RIPK3. Although the ROS scavenger butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) delayed TNF-induced necroptosis, it had no effect on necroptosis induced by RIPK3 oligomerization. Furthermore, although TNF-induced ROS production was dependent on mitochondria, the inhibition of TNF-induced necroptosis by BHA was observed in mitochondria-depleted cells. Our data indicate that mitochondrial ROS production accompanies, but does not cause, RIPK3-dependent necroptotic cell death

Targeting Histone Demethylases in MYC-Driven Neuroblastomas with Ciclopirox

Histone lysine demethylases facilitate the activity of oncogenic transcription factors, including possibly MYC. Here we show that multiple histone demethylases influence the viability and poor prognosis of neuroblastoma cells, where MYC is often overexpressed. We also identified the approved small-molecule antifungal agent ciclopirox as a novel pan-histone demethylase inhibitor. Ciclopirox targeted several histone demethylases, including KDM4B implicated in MYC function. Accordingly, ciclopirox inhibited Myc signaling in parallel with mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation, resulting in suppression of neuroblastoma cell viability and inhibition of tumor growth associated with an induction of differentiation. Our findings provide new insights into epigenetic regulation of MYC function and suggest a novel pharmacologic basis to target histone demethylases as an indirect MYC-targeting approach for cancer therapy

Multiple roles for the C-terminal tail of the chemokine scavenger D6

D6 is a heptahelical receptor that suppresses inflammation and tumorigenesis by scavenging extracellular pro-inflammatory CC chemokines. Previous studies suggested this is dependent on constitutive trafficking of stable D6 protein to and from the cell surface via recycling endosomes. By internalizing chemokine each time it transits the cell surface, D6 can, over time, remove large quantities of these inflammatory mediators. We have investigated the role of the conserved 58-amino acid C terminus of human D6, which, unlike the rest of the protein, shows no clear homology to other heptahelical receptors. We show that, in human HEK293 cells, a serine cluster in this region controls the constitutive phosphorylation, high stability, and intracellular trafficking itinerary of the receptor and drives green fluorescent protein-tagged beta-arrestins to membranes at, and near, the cell surface. Unexpectedly, however, these properties, and the last 44 amino acids of the C terminus, are dispensable for D6 internalization and effective scavenging of the chemokine CCL3. Even in the absence of the last 58 amino acids, D6 still initially internalizes CCL3 but, surprisingly, exposure to ligand inhibits subsequent CCL3 uptake by this mutant. Progressive scavenging is therefore abrogated. We conclude that the heptahelical body of D6 on its own can engage the endocytotic machinery of HEK293 cells but that the C terminus is indispensable for scavenging because it prevents initial chemokine engagement of D6 from inhibiting subsequent chemokine uptake

Lymphatic endothelial S1P promotes mitochondrial function and survival in naive T cells

Effective adaptive immune responses require a large repertoire of naive T cells that migrate throughout the body, rapidly identifying almost any foreign peptide. Because the production of T cells declines with age, naive T cells must be long-lived. However, it remains unclear how naive T cells survive for years while constantly travelling. The chemoattractant sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) guides T cell circulation among secondary lymphoid organs, including spleen, lymph nodes and Peyer's patches, where T cells search for antigens. The concentration of S1P is higher in circulatory fluids than in lymphoid organs, and the S1P1 receptor (S1P1R) directs the exit of T cells from the spleen into blood, and from lymph nodes and Peyer's patches into lymph. Here we show that S1P is essential not only for the circulation of naive T cells, but also for their survival. Using transgenic mouse models, we demonstrate that lymphatic endothelial cells support the survival of T cells by secreting S1P via the transporter SPNS2, that this S1P signals through S1P1R on T cells, and that the requirement for S1P1R is independent of the established role of the receptor in guiding exit from lymph nodes. S1P signalling maintains the mitochondrial content of naive T cells, providing cells with the energy to continue their constant migration. The S1P signalling pathway is being targeted therapeutically to inhibit autoreactive T cell trafficking, and these findings suggest that it may be possible simultaneously to target autoreactive or malignant cell survival