Herpesviruses in Head and Neck Cancers

Head and neck cancers arise in the mucosa lining the oral cavity, oropharynx, hypopharynx, larynx, sinonasal tract, and nasopharynx. The etiology of head and neck cancers is complex and involves many factors, including the presence of oncogenic viruses. These types of cancers are among the most common cancers in the world. Thorough knowledge of the pathogenesis of viral infections is needed to fully understand their impact on cancer development

The Double-Edged Sword Role of Viruses in Gastric Cancer

Due to its high morbidity and mortality, gastric cancer is a topic of a great concern throughout the world. Major ways of treatment are gastrectomy and chemotherapy, unfortunately they are not always successful. In a search for more efficient therapy strategies, viruses and their potential seem to be an important issue. On one hand, several oncogenic viruses have been noticed in the case of gastric cancer, making the positive treatment even more advantageous, but on the other, viruses exist with a potential therapeutic role in this malignancy

Interplay between Neutrophils, NETs and T-Cells in SARS-CoV-2 Infection—A Missing Piece of the Puzzle in the COVID-19 Pathogenesis?

Since the end of 2019, a new, dangerous virus has caused the deaths of more than 3 million people. Efforts to fight the disease remain multifaceted and include prophylactic strategies (vaccines), the development of antiviral drugs targeting replication, and the mitigation of the damage associated with exacerbated immune responses (e.g., interleukin-6-receptor inhibitors). However, numerous uncertainties remain, making it difficult to lower the mortality rate, especially among critically ill patients. While looking for a new means of understanding the pathomechanisms of the disease, we asked a question—is our immunity key to resolving these uncertainties? In this review, we attempt to answer this question, and summarize, interpret, and discuss the available knowledge concerning the interplay between neutrophils, neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs), and T-cells in COVID-19. These are considered to be the first line of defense against pathogens and, thus, we chose to emphasize their role in SARS-CoV-2 infection. Although immunologic alterations are the subject of constant research, they are poorly understood and often underestimated. This review provides background information for the expansion of research on the novel, immunity-oriented approach to diagnostic and treatment possibilities

Immunotherapy in Bladder Cancer: Current Methods and Future Perspectives

Bladder cancer is one of the most significant genitourinary cancer, causing high morbidity and mortality in a great number of patients. Over the years, various treatment methods for this type of cancer have been developed. The most common is the highly efficient method using Bacillus Calmette-Guerin, giving a successful effect in a high percentage of patients. However, due to the genetic instability of bladder cancer, together with individual needs of patients, the search for different therapy methods is ongoing. Immune checkpoints are cell surface molecules influencing the immune response and decreasing the strength of the immune response. Among those checkpoints, the PD-1 (programmed cell death protein-1)/PD-L1 (programmed cell death protein ligand 1) inhibitors aim at blocking those molecules, which results in T cell activation, and in bladder cancer the use of Atezolizumab, Avelumab, Durvalumab, Nivolumab, and Pembrolizumab has been described. The inhibition of another pivotal immune checkpoint, CTLA-4 (cytotoxic T cell antigen), may result in the mobilization of the immune system against bladder cancer and, among anti-CTLA-4 antibodies, the use of Ipilimumab and Tremelimumab has been discussed. Moreover, several different approaches to successful bladder cancer treatment exists, such as the use of ganciclovir and mTOR (mammalian target of rapamycin) kinase inhibitors, IL-12 (interleukin-12) and COX-2 (cyclooxygenase-2). The use of gene therapies and the disruption of different signaling pathways are currently being investigated. Research suggests that the combination of several methods increases treatment efficiency and the positive outcome in individual