Functionalization of Carbon Nanotubes for the Construction of Supramolecular Nanostructured Materials

2011/2012Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) possess important physical and chemical properties, such as high electrical and thermal conductivity, large surface area, high mechanical strength and chemical stability, that made them important in the construction of novel biomaterials, biosensors, transistors and conductive layers. However, an unsettled issue pertinent to the construction of such CNT-based materials is their precise localization and controllable spatial organization. As result, the development of new protocols for patterning CNTs on substrates or disperse them in biological media have become increasingly important in their processing. In this direction, several approaches have being developed, among them, the inclusion of non-covalent bond such electrostatic, hydrophobic, hydrogen bonding, metal coordination and π-π interactions. The aim of this thesis was to evaluate H-bonding interactions as directional, reliable and predictable non-covalent attractive forces between complementary H-donor (D) and H-acceptor (A) moieties to control the self-organization process of CNTs for the construction of macroscopic materials. In the Introduction (Chapter 1), an overview on CNTs is given, explaining their main features and the key issues associated with their manipulation. The different existing possibilities for CNT functionalization are described, focusing the attention on the covalent approach exploited in this thesis, namely the diazonium salt-based arylation reaction. The main characterization techniques used are then described, illustrating their advantages and their limitations. Subsequently, the existing literature on macroscopic CNT assemblies is given. Examples include super-strong 1D CNT fibers, highly flexible 2D CNT films and compressible 3D CNT arrays or foams. Finally, molecular-recognition events, able to direct the assembly of macroscopic structures, are described focusing on the possibility of translate this supramolecular approach on the assembly of CNT architectures. In Chapter 2 the utilization of an acridine-derived Zn(II)-cyclen complex as a multidentate ligand for recognizing thymidine-derived multiwalled carbon nanotube derivatives (Td-MWCNTs) is reported. The effectiveness of the Zn(II)-cyclen recognition has been confirmed through a combination of analytical techniques such as Kaiser test, TGA-MS, IR, X-Ray photoemission spectroscopy, TEM, UV-Vis absorption and fluorescence spectroscopy. Taken all together, the different characterization techniques have unambiguously shown the 1:1 recognition of the nucleoside by a Zn(II)-cyclen complex and confirmed that the Td moieties preserve their recognition properties also in presence of CNTs. In Chapter 3 nucleosides moieties (Thymidine, T; Adenosine, A; Cytidine, C; Guanosine, G) were covalently attached to MWCNTs as supramolecular motifs, N-MWCNTs (N=A, T, G, C). Then, the complementary nucleobase pair nanohybrids T-MWCNTs/A-MWCNTs and G-MWCNTs/C-MWCNTs were mixed together and the supramolecularly self-assembly was followed by characterization techniques such as TEM, TGA and IR spectroscopy. The successful recognition process allows the fabrication of freestanding homogeneous membranes by a simple vacuum filtration methodology. The electronic conduction properties of the resulting N-MWCNT films were measured. Finally, the intrinsic conductivity of pristine MWCNTs was restored in the films by the thermal removal of the organic functionalization moieties, as verified by resistivity and TGA measurements. Finally, in Chapter 4, a versatile and simple method for the construction of macroscopic structures based on CNT/Polymer composites is demonstrated. Ureidopyrimidinone (UPy) moieties were covalently attached to MWCNTs as supramolecular motifs (UPy-MWCNTs) and the novel nanohybrid compound was characterized by TGA, IR, TEM, UV-visible and 1H-NMR spectroscopy. Then the self-assembly of UPy-MWCNTs with different polymers bearing UPy moieties (Bis-UPy 1, Bis-UPy 2), trough quadruple complementary DDAA•AADD H-bonding motif, allowed the fabrication of a 2D free standing film and of a supramolecular gel using the method of solution blending. In conclusion the present thesis demonstrates that organic molecules covalently grafted to CNT surface as supramolecular motifs can control the self-assembly of CNTs by H-bonding recognition. This strategy can be used for the construction of supramolecular architectures to create new nanodevices. In particular we have demonstrated that the self-organizzation of functionalized CNTs lead to a versatile and simple method for the construction of macroscopic structures based on pure MWCNTs or on CNT/Polymer composites.I Nanotubi di Carbonio (CNTs) presentano importanti proprietà fisico-chimiche, come alta conducibilità elettrica e termica, ampia area superficiale, elevata forza meccanica e stabilità chimica, che li rendono interessanti per la costruzione di nuovi biomateriali, biosensori, transistor e film conduttivi. Tuttavia la loro localizzazione, organizzazione spaziale e manipolazione rimangono problemi irrisolti legati alla costruzione di materiali a base di nanotubi di carbonio. Lo sviluppo di nuovi protocolli per la deposizione controllata di CNTs su substrati o la loro dispersione in materiali biologici sono diventati sempre più di interesse. In questa direzione, diversi approcci sono in fase di sviluppo, tra cui l’esplorazione di legami non-covalenti, quali interazioni elettrostatiche, idrofobiche, legami a idrogeno, legami coordinativi e interazioni π-π. Lo scopo di questa tesi è stato valutare l’uso di interazioni a idrogeno come forze attrattive non-covalenti, direzionali e prevedibili, tra porzioni complementari H-donatori (D) e H-accettori (A) per controllare l'auto-organizzazione dei CNTs per la costruzione di materiali macroscopici. Nell'Introduzione (Capitolo 1), viene fatta una breve panoramica dei CNTs, spiegando le loro caratteristiche principali e le problematiche associate alla loro manipolazione. Vengono descritte le diverse strategie per la funzionalizzazione dei CNTs, focalizzando l'attenzione sull’ approccio covalente sfruttato in questa tesi, vale a dire la reazione di arilazione basata sui sali di diazonio. Vengono anche presentate le principali tecniche di caratterizzazione utilizzate, illustrando i loro vantaggi ed i loro limiti. Successivamente, viene riportata la letteratura esistente sulle strutture macroscopiche a base di CNTs. Gli esempi includono fibre 1D, film 2D e strutture 3D. Infine, vengono descritti alcuni processi di riconoscimento molecolare, in grado di dirigere l'assemblaggio di strutture macroscopiche, concentrandosi sulla possibilità di applicare questo approccio supramolecolare nell'assemblaggio di architetture di CNTs. Nel Capitolo 2 è stato riporto l'impiego di un complesso di acridina-Zn(II)-ciclano come legante multidentato per il riconoscimento di frammenti timidinici legati covalentemente alla superficie di CNTs (Td-MWCNTs). L'efficacia del riconoscimento supramolecolare è stato confermato attraverso una combinazione di tecniche analitiche quali il Kaiser test, TGA-MS, IR, XPS, TEM, assorbimento UV-Vis e spettroscopia di fluorescenza. Nel loro insieme, le diverse tecniche di caratterizzazione hanno dimostrato inequivocabilmente il riconoscimento 1:1 tra il nucleoside ed il complesso Zn(II)-ciclano, ed hanno confermato che le porzioni timidiniche conservano le loro proprietà di riconoscimento anche in presenza di CNTs. Nel Capitolo 3 i quattro nucleosidi (timidina, T; adenosina, A; citidina, C; guanosina, G) sono stati legati covalentemente a CNTs come pendagli supramolecolari, N-MWCNTs (N = A, T, G, C). I nanoibridi portanti coppie di nucleobasi complementari, T-MWCNTs/A-MWCNTs e G-MWCNTs/C-MWCNTs, sono stati mescolati insieme e l’ auto-riconoscimento supramolecolare è stato analizzato con diverse tecniche di caratterizzazione come TEM e spettroscopia IR. Il processo di riconoscimento ha permesso la fabbricazione di membrane omogenee, utilizzando una semplice metodologia di filtrazione sotto vuoto. Le proprietà di conduzione elettrica dei risultanti film di N-MWCNTs sono state misurate. Infine, nelle membrane è stata restaurata la conducibilità intrinseca dei CNTs attraverso la rimozione termica delle funzionalizzazioni organiche, come verificato dalle misure di resistività e dalle analisi TGA. Nel Capitolo 4, infine,è stato dimostriamo un metodo versatile e semplice per la costruzione di strutture macroscopiche basate su compositi di nanotubi e polimeri. Pendagli di Ureidopirimidinoni (UPy) sono stati covalentemente legati alle pareti dei CNTs come motivi supramolecolari (UPy-MWCNTs) ed il nuovo nanoibrido è stato caratterizzato attraverso TGA, IR, TEM, assorbimento UV-visibile e 1H-NMR. L'auto-assemblaggio di UPy-MWCNTs con diversi polimeri recanti frammenti UPy (Bis-UPy 1, Bis-UPy 2) ha permesso la realizzazione di un film bidimensionale e di un gel supramolecolare, attraverso la formazione di legami a idrogeno complementari quadrupli DDAA•AADD. In conclusione la presente tesi dimostra che le molecole organiche legate covalentemente alla superficie dei CNTs come motivi supramolecolari sono in grado di controllare l'auto-assemblaggio dei nanotubi attraverso il riconoscimento a legame a idrogeno. Questa strategia può essere usata per la costruzione di architetture supramolecolari per creare nuovi nanodispositivi. In particolare è stato dimostrato che l'auto-organizzazione di CNTs funzionalizzati risulta un metodo versatile e semplice per la costruzione di strutture macroscopiche a base di soli CNTs o di compositi nanotubi/polimeri.XXV Ciclo198

Ecomuseo Urbano Metropolitano Milano Nord: per una biografia culturale del paesaggio collettivo

The Ecomuseo Urbano Metropolitano Milano Nord (EUMM) is a new entity, a widespread and participatory museum interpreting the territory and enhancing its tangible and intangible heritage. The described projects highlight the ecomuseum’s ability to test innovative practices and to promote participated actions in order to understand and to reassemble the urban landscape and the ongoing transformations, evident ones and hidden ones, the knowledge, the history and collective memory, by involving citizens in tasks of active protection

Safety, Immunogenicity and Dose Ranging of a New Vi-CRM197 Conjugate Vaccine against Typhoid Fever: Randomized Clinical Testing in Healthy Adults

Typhoid fever causes more than 21 million cases of disease and 200,000 deaths yearly worldwide, with more than 90% of the disease burden being reported from Asia. Epidemiological data show high disease incidence in young children and suggest that immunization programs should target children below two years of age: this is not possible with available vaccines. The Novartis Vaccines Institute for Global Health developed a conjugate vaccine (Vi-CRM₁₉₇) for infant vaccination concomitantly with EPI vaccines, either starting at 6 weeks with DTP or at 9 months with measles vaccine. We report the results from a Phase 1 and a Phase 2 dose ranging trial with Vi-CRM₁₉₇ in European adults.Following randomized blinded comparison of single vaccination with either Vi-CRM₁₉₇ or licensed polysaccharide vaccines (both containing 25·0 µg of Vi antigen), a randomised observer blinded dose ranging trial was performed in the same center to compare three concentrations of Vi-CRM₁₉₇ (1·25 µg, 5·0 µg and 12·5 µg of Vi antigen) with the polysaccharide vaccine.All vaccines were well tolerated. Compared to the polysaccharide vaccine, Vi-CRM₁₉₇ induced a higher incidence of mild to moderate short lasting local pain. All Vi-CRM₁₉₇ formulations induced higher Vi antibody levels compared to licensed control, with clear dose response relationship.Vi-CRM₁₉₇ did not elicit safety concerns, was highly immunogenic and is therefore suitable for further clinical testing in endemic populations of South Asia.ClinicalTrials.gov NCT01123941 NCT01193907

Age-dependent acquisition of IgG antibodies to Shigella serotypes-a retrospective analysis of seroprevalence in Kenyan children with implications for infant vaccination.

BACKGROUND: Shigellosis mainly affects children under 5 years of age living in low- and middle-income countries, who are the target population for vaccination. There are, however, limited data available to define the appropriate timing for vaccine administration in this age group. Information on antibody responses following natural infection, proxy for exposure, could help guide vaccination strategies. METHODS: We undertook a retrospective analysis of antibodies to five of the most prevalent Shigella serotypes among children aged <5 years in Kenya. Serum samples from a cross-sectional serosurvey in three Kenyan sites (Nairobi, Siaya, and Kilifi) were analyzed by standardized ELISA to measure IgG against Shigella sonnei and Shigella flexneri 1b, 2a, 3a, and 6. We identified factors associated with seropositivity to each Shigella serotype, including seropositivity to other Shigella serotypes. RESULTS: A total of 474 samples, one for each participant, were analyzed: Nairobi (n = 169), Siaya (n = 185), and Kilifi (n = 120). The median age of the participants was 13.4 months (IQR 7.0-35.6), and the male:female ratio was 1:1. Geometric mean concentrations (GMCs) for each serotype increased with age, mostly in the second year of life. The overall seroprevalence of IgG antibodies increased with age except for S. flexneri 6 which was high across all age subgroups. In the second year of life, there was a statistically significant increase of antibody GMCs against all five serotypes (p = 0.01-0.0001) and a significant increase of seroprevalence for S. flexneri 2a (p = 0.006), S. flexneri 3a (p = 0.006), and S. sonnei (p = 0.05) compared with the second part of the first year of life. Among all possible pairwise comparisons of antibody seropositivity, there was a significant association between S. flexneri 1b and 2a (OR = 6.75, 95% CI 3-14, p < 0.001) and between S. flexneri 1b and 3a (OR = 23.85, 95% CI 11-54, p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: Children living in low- and middle-income settings such as Kenya are exposed to Shigella infection starting from the first year of life and acquire serotype-specific antibodies against multiple serotypes. The data from this study suggest that Shigella vaccination should be targeted to infants, ideally at 6 or at least 9 months of age, to ensure children are protected in the second year of life when exposure significantly increases

Age-dependent acquisition of IgG antibodies to Shigella serotypes—a retrospective analysis of seroprevalence in Kenyan children with implications for infant vaccination

BackgroundShigellosis mainly affects children under 5 years of age living in low- and middle-income countries, who are the target population for vaccination. There are, however, limited data available to define the appropriate timing for vaccine administration in this age group. Information on antibody responses following natural infection, proxy for exposure, could help guide vaccination strategies.MethodsWe undertook a retrospective analysis of antibodies to five of the most prevalent Shigella serotypes among children aged &lt;5 years in Kenya. Serum samples from a cross-sectional serosurvey in three Kenyan sites (Nairobi, Siaya, and Kilifi) were analyzed by standardized ELISA to measure IgG against Shigella sonnei and Shigella flexneri 1b, 2a, 3a, and 6. We identified factors associated with seropositivity to each Shigella serotype, including seropositivity to other Shigella serotypes.ResultsA total of 474 samples, one for each participant, were analyzed: Nairobi (n = 169), Siaya (n = 185), and Kilifi (n = 120). The median age of the participants was 13.4 months (IQR 7.0–35.6), and the male:female ratio was 1:1. Geometric mean concentrations (GMCs) for each serotype increased with age, mostly in the second year of life. The overall seroprevalence of IgG antibodies increased with age except for S. flexneri 6 which was high across all age subgroups. In the second year of life, there was a statistically significant increase of antibody GMCs against all five serotypes (p = 0.01–0.0001) and a significant increase of seroprevalence for S. flexneri 2a (p = 0.006), S. flexneri 3a (p = 0.006), and S. sonnei (p = 0.05) compared with the second part of the first year of life. Among all possible pairwise comparisons of antibody seropositivity, there was a significant association between S. flexneri 1b and 2a (OR = 6.75, 95% CI 3–14, p &lt; 0.001) and between S. flexneri 1b and 3a (OR = 23.85, 95% CI 11–54, p &lt; 0.001).ConclusionChildren living in low- and middle-income settings such as Kenya are exposed to Shigella infection starting from the first year of life and acquire serotype-specific antibodies against multiple serotypes. The data from this study suggest that Shigella vaccination should be targeted to infants, ideally at 6 or at least 9 months of age, to ensure children are protected in the second year of life when exposure significantly increases

Novel nanostructures based on the active interplay between nucleobases and carbon nanotubes

3siA plethora of potential applications of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have been proposed based on their unique strength, high aspect ratio and excellent thermal and electronic properties. However, difficulties in their processing and manipulation have hindered their utilisation in materials and devices. A successful strategy to improve CNT solubility and chemical attachment to other small molecules, metals, surfaces or polymers is the covalent attachment of appropriate moieties on their surface. In this direction, the synthesis of nucleobase–CNT hybrids gives the flexibility of exploiting the four different units A, C, G and T (or U) all of which offer different binding characteristics. Nucleobases not only interact with each other by the formation of hydrogen bonding, but also interact with other small organic molecules, as well as with metals. In this contribution, we focus on examples of how nucleobase–CNT hybrids have been used as building blocks to direct the self-assembly in the construction of functional CNT architectures.nonemixedMicoli, Alessandra; Quintana, Mildred; Prato, MaurizioMicoli, Alessandra; Quintana, Mildred; Prato, Maurizi

Supramolecular Macrostructures of UPy-Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are considered excellent materials for the construction of flexible displays due to their nanoscale dimensions and unique physical and chemical properties. By using the recognition properties of 2-ureido-4[1H]pyrimidinone (UPy), a versatile and simple methodology was demonstrated for the construction of macroscopic structures based on UPy-CNT/polymer composites prepared by a combination of two functionalization approaches: 1)\u2005covalent attachment of UPy pendants on the multiwalled CNT surface (UPy-MWCNTs) and 2)\u2005directed self-assembly of UPy-MWCNTs within polymers bearing UPy pendants (Bis-UPy\u20051 and Bis-UPy\u20052) by quadruple complementary DDAA\u2013AADD hydrogen-bond recognition (D=donor, A=acceptor)

Characterization of Competitive ELISA and Formulated Alhydrogel Competitive ELISA (FAcE) for Direct Quantification of Active Ingredients in GMMA-Based Vaccines

Generalized modules for membrane antigens (GMMA) represent a technology particularly attractive for designing affordable vaccines against Gram-negative bacteria. We explored such technology for the development of O-antigen-based vaccines against Shigella and nontyphoidal Salmonella. Adsorption of GMMA on Alhydrogel was required for abrogation of pyrogenicity in rabbits, and Shigella sonnei GMMA on Alhydrogel was well tolerated and immunogenic in humans. Quantification of key antigens in formulated vaccines was fundamental for release and to check stability overtime. Traditionally, the direct quantification of antigens adsorbed on aluminum salts has been challenging, and the quantification of each active ingredient in multicomponent formulated vaccines has been even more complicated. To directly quantify each active ingredient and unbound drug substances in formulated vaccines, we developed the Formulated Alhydrogel competitive ELISA (FAcE) and the competitive ELISA method, respectively. The methods were both fully characterized, assessing specificity, repeatability, intermediate precision, and accuracy, for S. sonnei OAg quantification, both in a single component or multicomponent GMMA formulation also containing S. flexneri GMMA. The developed immunological methods allowed us to fully characterize Shigella GMMA drug products, supporting their preclinical and clinical development. The same methods, already extended to GMMA from nontyphoidal Salmonella and Neisseria meningitidis, could be potentially extended to any antigen formulated on Alhydrogel

Supramolecular Assemblies of Nucleoside Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes: Synthesis, Film Preparation, and Properties

Nucleoside-functionalized multi-walled carbon nanotubes (N-MWCNTs) were synthesized and characterized. A self-organization process using hydrogen bonding interactions was then used for the fabrication of self-assembled N-MWCNTs films free of stabilizing agents, polymers, or surfactants. Membranes were produced by using a simple water-dispersion-based vacuum-filtration method. Hydrogen-bond recognition was confirmed by analysis with IR spectroscopy and TEM images. Restoration of the electronic conduction properties in the N-MWCNTs membranes was performed by removing the organic portion by thermal treatment under an argon atmosphere to give d-N-MWCNTs. Electrical conductivity and thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA) measurements confirmed the efficiency of the annealing process. Finally, oxidative biodegradation of the films N-MWCNTs and d-N-MWCNTs was performed by using horseradish peroxidase (HRP) and low concentrations of H2O2. Our results confirm that functional groups play an important role in the biodegradation of CNT by HRP: N-MWCNTs films were completely biodegraded, whereas for d-N-MWCNTs films no degradation was observed, showing that the pristine CNT undergoes minimal enzyme-catalyzed oxidation This novel methodology offers a straightforward supramolecular strategy for the construction of conductive and biodegradable carbon nanotube films. Conductive and biodegradable films: A self-organization process using hydrogen-bond interactions (see scheme, MWCNT=multiwalled carbon nanotube) is used for the fabrication of conductive and biodegradable carbon nanotube films totally free of stabilizing agents, polymers, or surfactants