Revisiting childhood herpes zoster.

Herpes zoster is rare in otherwise healthy children, but it is more common in association with immunosuppression. Maternal varicella infection during pregnancy and varicella occurring in the newborn represent risk factors for childhood herpes zoster. However, some controversies persist about risk factors, diagnosis, and the natural history of childhood disease. In a 2-year prospective study, 18 children with herpes zoster were clinically diagnosed in outpatient consultations in a hospital dermatology unit. Data about age, dermatome involvement, underlying disease, and history of previous varicella were recorded. Tzanck smears, biopsy specimens, and sera were obtained from 18, 4, and 10 children, respectively. The varicella zoster virus major envelope glycoprotein gE was detected in 16 of 18 smears and all four biopsies. Herpes simplex virus I was demonstrated in one of the smears. The established risk factors for childhood herpes zoster were only found in one child. Evidence for previous full-blown varicella and varicella with few lesions was recorded in 7 and 4 of the 17 immunocompetent children, respectively. No history of varicella was recalled in 6 of 17 cases, although a serologic clue of past varicella infection (IgM negative, IgG positive) was disclosed. Recurrent herpes zoster was diagnosed in one immunocompromised child. Zoster-associated pain was localized and the disease severity remained mild in all children. Established risk factors for childhood herpes zoster were only rarely found in our series of patients. In contrast, unrecognized varicella and varicella with few lesions were frequently recorded and may represent additional risk factors for shingles in childhood. Zosteriform herpes simplex virus infections should be differentiated from childhood herpes zoster, emphasizing the importance of precise viral identification

Orchid re-introductions: an evaluation of success and ecological considerations using key comparative studies from Australia

With global biodiversity in decline, there is now an urgent requirement to take ameliorative action for endangered species in the form of reintroductions. For the highly diverse orchid family, many species face imminent extinction. Successful reintroductions that result in self-sustaining populations require not only an understanding of existing threats, but an in-depth understanding of species ecology. Increasingly, translocations, ranging from re-introductions to assisted colonisation, are being adopted as recovery actions. Do these translocations mitigate threatening processes and account for the two key ecological attributes for orchid survival; pollinator and mycorrhizal presence? Here, we conducted a literature review identifying the known threats to orchid survival and their necessary mitigation strategies. Next, we evaluated the success of 74 published international orchid translocations on 66 species against a consideration of orchid ecological attributes. Lastly, we empirically tested an additional 22 previously unpublished re-introductions on 12 species undertaken since 2007 against a re-introduction process that accounts for identified threats and orchid ecological attributes. We identified habitat destruction, weed invasion, herbivory, illegal collection, pollinator decline, pathogens and climate change as critical threats to orchid survival. In our global review based on published translocations, the average survival rate, 1-year post translocation was 66 % yet only 2.8 % of studies reported natural recruitment in field sites. Although survival of translocated orchids is clearly being achieved, these programmes did not relate orchid growth and development to key ecological requirements of orchid population resilience, pollinator and mycorrhizal ecology. Ensuring pollinator and mycorrhizal presence shows that these two factors alone are key factors influencing survival and persistence in an Australian review of 22 previously unpublished orchid re-introductions. In the Australian review flowering in the year following, out-planting was observed for 81 % of the re-introductions with seed set occurring in 63 % of re-introductions within the length of the study. Recruitment was observed in 18 % of the Australian re-introduced populations indicating a degree of population resilience. As orchid re-introductions will be a major strategy for wild orchid conservation in the future, we present a framework for orchid re-introductions, including criteria for success. We recommend symbiotic propagation and, for specialised pollination syndromes, the study of pollinator interactions prior to site selection and re-introduction of plants