Barriers to handpump serviceability in Malawi : life-cycle costing for sustainable service delivery

The implementation of handpumps has contributed to increased improved water access. However, 'universal access' as the metric for success within Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6, potentially conceals fundamental barriers for sustainable services and hinders SDG 6 target success. Tariffs, in the form of household contributions, are the most common form of financial provision for the maintenance of rural water supplies. However, the annualised financial resources significantly vary across local contexts. Four tariff scenarios (collected per month, when required for repairs, per year and no tariff) were investigated across the life-cycle of 21 997 Afridev handpumps in Malawi. Known local costs for Afridev components from suppliers in Malawi were used to determine the potential shortfall in financial resources over the handpumps' 15 year design life. Domains that influence functionality, such as the operations, maintenance and quality of infrastructure, were also investigated to identify significant factors impacting the sustainability of the handpumps. Logistic regression indicates sub-standard installations (i.e. seasonality and poor water quality), structural damage to civil works, no preventative maintenance, lack of spare parts on site and a shortfall in potential financial resources were significantly associated with the poor status of infrastructure (broken or worn components) over the life-cycle of the Afridev. The findings highlight the burden placed on rural communities of maintaining inherently unsustainable assets that inevitably hinders lasting service delivery and benefits for rural communities in the SDG period and beyond. This journal i

Predicting groundwater vulnerability to geogenic fluoride risk : a screening method for Malawi and an opportunity for national policy redefinition

Fluoride concentrations in Malawi’s groundwater are primarily controlled by geogenic sources that are highly variable and may cause a heterogeneous fluoride occurrence and local-to-regional variations in fluorosis health risks posed. Our aim was to address the challenge of developing a national solution to predicting groundwater vulnerability to geogenic fluoride risk in the country of Malawi where incidences of fluorosis are reported and typical developing world problems of limited data and resources abound. Previously there have only been sporadic, local-scale studies linking fluoride occurrence with health risks in Malawi with no attempts to tackle the issue nationally. We hence develop a screening method for predicting groundwater vulnerability to geogenic fluoride in the form of detailed risk maps developed from statistical relationships shown between groundwater fluoride occurrence and known geogenic fluoride sources. The approach provides for dynamic update and informed acquisition of new data and hence on-going improving capacity to manage fluoride risks in Malawi. Our screening method provides a technical basis for redefining national fluoride policy to ensure commensurate management of health risks posed. Specifically, the approach provides a pathway for stepped progression from the current 6 mg/L Malawian standard for fluoride in drinking water to adoption of the World Health Organisation 1.5 mg/L guideline standard

Identifying groundwater fluoride source in a weathered basement aquifer in central Malawi : human health and policy implications

Consumption of groundwater containing fluoride exceeding World Health Organization (WHO) 1.5 mg/L standard leaves people vulnerable to fluorosis: a vulnerability not well characterised in Malawi. To evaluate geogenic fluoride source and concentration, groundwater fluoride and geology was documented in central Malawi where groundwater supplies are mainly sourced from the weathered basement aquifer. Lithological composition was shown as the main control on fluoride occurrence. Augen gneiss of granitic composition posed the greatest geological fluoride risk. The weathered basement aquifer profile was the main factor controlling fluoride distributions. These results and fluoride-lithology statistical analysis allowed the development of a graded map of geological fluoride risk. A direct link to human health risk (dental fluorosis) from geological fluoride was quantified to support science-led policy change for fluoride in rural drinking water in Malawi. Hazard quotient (HQ) values were calculated and assigned to specific water points, depending on user age group; in this case, 74% of children under six were shown to be vulnerable to dental fluorosis. Results are contrary to current standard for fluoride in Malawi groundwater of 6 mg/L, highlighting the need for policy change. Detailed policy recommendations are presented based on the results of this stud