Activity Budget and Foraging Patterns of Nubian Giraffes (\u3cem\u3eGiraffa camelopardalis camelopardalis\u3c/em\u3e) in Lake Nakuru National Park, Kenya

How animals decide to spend their time has a key impact on their survival and reproduction. These behavioral decisions are shaped by ecological and environmental factors, such as seasonal changes. Foraging patterns show how an animal chooses to forage in its environment as influenced by resource availability, competition, and predation risk. Giraffe activity budget has been investigated in populations across Africa and found to be influenced by body size, diet composition, and sex. The activity budget and foraging patterns of Nubian giraffes vary considerably between ecosystems. The Nubian giraffe, a subspecies of the Northern giraffe species (Giraffa Camelopardalis) is a critically endangered population and occurs only within Kenya, Uganda, Ethiopia, and Southern Sudan. We performed 3 months of behavioral observation on a population of Nubian giraffes in Lake Nakuru National Park, Kenya, to assess seasonal activity budgets and foraging patterns. We found that in the wet and dry seasons giraffe spent approximately the same amount of time (53% and 57%, respectively) foraging. Movement and resting duration decreased slightly from dry to wet seasons 22% to 20% and 25% to 22% respectively. Across both seasons, Vachellia xanthophloea (67%), Maytenus senegalensis (19%), and Solanum incanum (9%) made up the bulk of giraffe\u27s diet. In the dry season, giraffes additionally foraged on Maerua triphylla (2%), Vachellia gerrardi (2%), and Grewia similis (1%); in the wet season, they added Vachellia abyssinica (2%) and Rhus natalensis (2%) to their diet. The most utilized browsing height was 3.5 meters (level 5), below their average height. Giraffes browse at lower heights after they consume the young shoots from the top of the bushes. Overall, seasonality did not appear to influence the Nubian giraffe\u27s activity budget or foraging patterns in LNNP. Planting perennial plants encourage uniform park resource use, boosts forage diversity, and minimizes Vachellia browsing pressure

Plant species composition and diversity depending on piospheres and seasonality in the southern rangelands of Kenya

Abstract Introduction Scarcity of water in the rangelands of Kenya has led to the introduction of piospheres. Previous research has however produced contrasting results on the effects of piospheres and seasonality on Shannon-Wiener’s diversity index, and therefore, this information is still deficient. In this study, the impact of these piospheres on plant species composition, diversity, and richness was assessed. Methods Vegetation sampling was done during both the long rains (April) and the dry season (August). Three piosphere types (dam, trough, and a seasonal river) were studied using 0.25 m2 quadrats to sample vegetation at intervals of 20 m along 100-m transects. Four 100-m transects were used per piosphere (north, east, south, and west directions). Shannon-Wiener’s diversity index was used to determine species richness and composition. Two-way ANOVA was used to determine if piospheric distance had an effect on species diversity, richness, and evenness using GenStat 15th edition. Results A total of 22 grasses and 29 forbs were recorded in the study area. The most abundant grasses near the piospheres were Eragrostis tenuifolia (12.9%) and Cynodon dactylon (10.6%). E. tenuifolia is an increaser species and was therefore most abundant in areas of severe grazing while C. dactylon has been known to be tolerant to grazing. The most abundant forbs were Crotalaria brevidens (37.5%). The Shannon-Wiener diversity index significantly increased (F = 25.07, P = 0.001) with distance from the three piospheres owing to the high grazing intensity near the piospheres and was significantly different between piospheres, being higher (F = 10.05, P = 0.001) at 20 m from the river (1.2 ± 0.1) compared to a similar distance from the dam (0.9 ± 0.1) and the trough (0.8 ± 0.2). This was probably because the trough was smaller in size compared to the other piospheres, thereby concentrating more grazing animals per unit area and causing a greater impact on plant species. Conclusions The study demonstrated that species diversity, richness, and evenness were low near the piospheres due to heavy grazing. Similarly, the lowest species diversity, richness, and evenness were recorded near the trough compared to the dam and the river. This study therefore recommends that range reseeding and rest period be done to rehabilitate degraded areas and facilitate plant regeneration. Larger piospheres should also be used to minimize animal impact per unit area

Effect of piospheres on physio-chemical soil properties in the Southern Rangelands of Kenya

Abstract Introduction Water-based interventions haphazardly introduced in the drylands of Kenya have led to the introduction of piospheres used as concentration mounts. Not much is known about the effect of these piospheres on soil physio-chemical properties, especially in the Kenyan rangelands where the government and other development agencies have created piospheres aimed at curbing water shortages and sustaining livestock production. The study assessed the effect of piospheres on soil physio-chemical characteristics in the southern rangelands of Kajiado, Kenya, in order to provide evidence-based insights that will be useful in guiding future water interventions. Methods Soil samples were collected within 0.25-m2 plots at 20-m intervals along 100-m transects from three piospheres (a dam, a trough, and a seasonal river). Two-way ANOVA was used to determine if there were significant differences in soil parameters between piospheric distances. Results Soil bulk density significantly different between piospheric distances (F = 22.25, P = 0.001) and piospheres (F = 13.10, P = 0.002), being highest at 20 m from the trough (1.1–1.21 gcm−3) relative to a similar distance from the dam (1.01–1.20 gcm−3) and the river (1.1–1.17 gcm−3). On the other hand, mean soil aggregate stability significantly increased (F = 66.89, P = 0.001) with piospheric distance, being lowest at 20 m from the trough (43.9–46.2%), the dam (43.1–48.9%), and the river (46.6–47.5%). Conclusions High soil bulk density and consequent low soil porosity, hydraulic conductivity, and moisture content demonstrated that grazing was high near the piospheres. It is recommended that livestock should be herded away from the piospheres after drinking water to ensure that grazing livestock spend less time near the piospheres if reduced soil compaction is to be realized. Piospheres should also be better planned and placed at landscape level to exploit landscape heterogeneity

A critical analysis of health care purchasing arrangements in Kenya: A case study of the county departments of health

BACKGROUND:Purchasing in health care financing refers to the transfer of pooled funds to health care providers for the provision of health care services. There is limited empirical work on purchasing arrangements and what is required for strategic purchasing in low- and middle-income countries. We conducted this study to critically assess the purchasing arrangements of the county departments of health (CDOH) who are the largest purchasers of health care in Kenya. METHODS:We used a qualitative case study approach to assess the extent to which the purchasing actions of the CDOH in Kenya were strategic. We purposively sampled 10 counties and collected data using in-depth interviews (n = 81), focus group discussions (n = 4), and documents review. We analyzed data using a framework approach. RESULTS:County departments of health did not practice strategic purchasing. The government's (national and county) role as a steward for the purchasing function was characterized by poor accountability and inadequate budgetary allocations for service delivery. The absence of a purchaser-provider split between the CDOH and public health care providers undermined provider selection based on performance and quality. Poor public participation and ineffective complaints and feedback mechanisms limited public accountability and responsiveness to the needs of the people. CONCLUSION:Our findings show that while there are frameworks that could promote strategic purchasing of the CDOH, strategic purchasing is impaired by poor implementation of these frameworks and the inherent weaknesses of a public integrated purchasing system that lacks purchaser-provider split

Multiple radiations of spiny mice (Rodentia: Acomys) in dry open habitats of Afro-Arabia: evidence from a multi-locus phylogeny

Abstract Background Spiny mice of the genus Acomys are distributed mainly in dry open habitats in Africa and the Middle East, and they are widely used as model taxa for various biological disciplines (e.g. ecology, physiology and evolutionary biology). Despite their importance, large distribution and abundance in local communities, the phylogeny and the species limits in the genus are poorly resolved, and this is especially true for sub-Saharan taxa. The main aims of this study are (1) to reconstruct phylogenetic relationships of Acomys based on the largest available multilocus dataset (700 genotyped individuals from 282 localities), (2) to identify the main biogeographical divides in the distribution of Acomys diversity in dry open habitats in Afro-Arabia, (3) to reconstruct the historical biogeography of the genus, and finally (4) to estimate the species richness of the genus by application of the phylogenetic species concept. Results The multilocus phylogeny based on four genetic markers shows presence of five major groups of Acomys called here subspinosus, spinosissimus, russatus, wilsoni and cahirinus groups. Three of these major groups (spinosissimus, wilsoni and cahirinus) are further sub-structured to phylogenetic lineages with predominantly parapatric distributions. Combination of alternative species delimitation methods suggests the existence of 26 molecular operational taxonomic units (MOTUs), potentially corresponding to separate species. The highest genetic diversity was found in Eastern Africa. The origin of the genus Acomys is dated to late Miocene (ca. 8.7 Ma), when the first split occurred between spiny mice of eastern (Somali-Masai) and south-eastern (Zambezian) savannas. Further diversification, mostly in Plio-Pleistocene, and the current distribution of Acomys were influenced by the interplay of global climatic factors (e.g., Messinian salinity crisis, intensification of Northern Hemisphere glaciation) with local geomorphology (mountain chains, aridity belts, water bodies). Combination of divergence dating, species distribution modelling and historical biogeography analysis suggests repeated “out-of-East-Africa” dispersal events into western Africa, the Mediterranean region and Arabia. Conclusions The genus Acomys is very suitable model for historical phylogeographic and biogeographic reconstructions of dry non-forested environments in Afro-Arabia. We provide the most thorough phylogenetic reconstruction of the genus and identify major factors that influenced its evolutionary history since the late Miocene. We also highlight the urgent need of integrative taxonomic revision of east African taxa