Pesticide toxicity

Pesticides are known for their high persistence and pervasiveness in the environment, and along with products of their biotransformation, they may remain in and interact with the environment and living organisms in multiple ways, according to their nature and chemical structure, dose and targets. In this review, the classifications of pesticides based on their nature, use, physical state, pathophysiological effects, and sources are discussed. The effects of these xenobiotics on the environment, their biotransformation in terms of bioaccumulation are highlighted with special focus on the molecular mechanisms deciphered to date. Basing on targeted organisms, most pesticides are classified as herbicides, fungicides, and insecticides. Herbicides are known as growth regulators, seedling growth inhibitors, photosynthesis inhibitors, inhibitors of amino acid and lipid biosynthesis, cell membrane disrupters, and pigment biosynthesis inhibitors, whereas fungicides include inhibitors of ergosterol biosynthesis, protein biosynthesis, and mitochondrial respiration. Insecticides mainly affect nerves and muscle, growth and development, and energy production. Studying the impact of pesticides and other related chemicals is of great interest to animal and human health risk assessment processes since potentially everyone can be exposed to these compounds which may cause many diseases, including metabolic syndrome, malnutrition, atherosclerosis, inflammation, pathogen invasion, nerve injury, and susceptibility to infectious diseases. Future studies should be directed to investigate influence of long term effects of low pesticide doses and to minimize or eliminate influence of pesticides on non-target living organisms, produce more specific pesticides and using modern technologies to decrease contamination of food and other goods by pesticides

Tissue-specific induction of oxidative stress in goldfish by 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid: Mild in brain and moderate in liver and kidney

This study investigated the effects of the herbicide 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) on free radical-related processes in tissues of goldfish given 96. h exposures to 1, 10 or 100. mg/L of 2,4-D as well as 96. h recovery from the 100. mg/L treatment. In liver, 2,4-D exposure increased levels of protein carbonyls and lipid peroxides by 36-53% and 24-43%, respectively, but both parameters reverted during recovery, whereas in brain glutathione status improved in response to 2,4-D. Lipid peroxide content in kidney was enhanced by 40-43% after exposure to 2,4-D with a decrease during recovery. Exposure to 2,4-D also reduced liver acetylcholinesterase activity by 31-41%. The treatment increased catalase activity in brain, but returned it to initial levels after recovery. In kidney, exposure to 100. mg/L of 2,4-D caused a 33% decrease of superoxide dismutase activity. Thus, goldfish exposure to 2,4-D induced moderate oxidative stress in liver and kidney and mild oxidative stress in brain

Acute exposure to copper induces variable intensity of oxidative stress in goldfish tissues

Copper is an essential element, but at high concentrations, it is toxic for living organisms. The present study investigated the responses of goldfish, Carassius auratus, to 96 h exposure to 30, 300, or 700 μg L−1 of copper II chloride (Cu2+). The content of protein carbonyls was higher in kidney (by 158%) after exposure to 700 mg L−1 copper, whereas in gills, liver, and brain, we observed lower content of protein carbonyls after exposure to copper compared with control values. Exposure to copper resulted in increased levels of lipid peroxides in gills (76%) and liver (95–110%) after exposure to 300 and 700 μg L−1 Cu2+. Low molecular mass thiols were depleted by 23–40% in liver and by 29–67% in kidney in response to copper treatment and can be used as biomarkers toxicity of copper. The activities of primary antioxidant enzymes, superoxide dismutase and catalase, were increased in liver as a result of Cu2+ exposure, whereas in kidney catalase activity was decreased. The activities of glutathione-related enzymes, glutathione peroxidase, glutathione-S-transferase, and glutathione reductase were decreased as a result of copper exposure, but glutathione reductase activity increased by 25–40% in liver. Taken together, these data show that exposure of fish to Cu2+ ions results in the development of low/high intensity oxidative stress reflected in enhanced activities of antioxidant and associated enzymes in different goldfish tissues

Hepatotoxicity of herbicide Sencor in goldfish may result from induction of mild oxidative stress

The effects of 96 h exposure to 7.14, 35.7, or 71.4 mg L-1 of Sencor were studied on liver and plasma parameters in goldfish, Carassius auratus L. Goldfish exposure to 71.4 mg L-1 of Sencor for 96 h resulted in a decrease in glucose concentrations in plasma and liver by 55%, but did not affect liver glycogen levels. An increase in the activity of aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase and lactate dehydrogenase (by 24-27%, 32-72%, and 87-102%, respectively) occurred in plasma of Sencor exposed goldfish, whereas in liver activities of these enzymes decreased (by 15-17%, 19%, and 20%, respectively). Lactate concentration in plasma increased by 22-36% in all treated fish groups, whereas in liver it increased by 64% only after exposure to 35.7 mg L-1 of Sencor. Herbicide exposure enhanced lipid peroxide levels by 49-75% and decreased activities of catalase by 46%, glutathione reductase by 25-48% and glutathione peroxidase by 21-26% suggesting development of oxidative stress in liver. The treatment induced various histological changes in goldfish liver, such as dilated sinusoids, hypertrophy and dystrophy of hepatic cells and detachment of endothelial cytoplasm with diffuse hemorrhage. The data collectively let us propose that mild oxidative stress might be responsible for the hepatotoxicity of Sencor