How are firms’ wages and prices linked : survey evidence in Europe

This paper presents new evidence on the patterns of price and wage adjustment in European firms and on the extent of nominal rigidities. It uses a unique dataset collected through a firm-level survey conducted in a broad range of countries and covering various sectors. Several conclusions are drawn from this evidence. Firms adjust wages less frequently than prices: the former tend to remain unchanged for about 15 months on average, the latter for around 10 months. The degree of price rigidity varies substantially across sectors and depends strongly on economic features, such as the intensity of competition, the exposure to foreign markets and the share of labour costs in total cost. Instead, country specificities, mostly related to the labour market institutional setting, are more relevant in characterising the pattern of wage adjustment. The latter exhibits also a substantial degree of time-dependence, as firms tend to concentrate wage changes in a specific month, mostly January in the majority of countries. Wage and price changes feed into each other at the micro level and there is a relationship between wage and price rigiditysurvey, wage rigidity, price rigidity, indexation, institutions, time dependent

How are firms' wages and prices linked: survey evidence in Europe

This paper presents new evidence on the patterns of price and wage adjustment in European firms and on the extent of nominal rigidities. It uses a unique dataset collected through a firm-level survey conducted in a broad range of countries and covering various sectors. Several conclusions are drawn from this evidence. Firms adjust wages less frequently than prices: the former tend to remain unchanged for about 15 months on average, the latter for around 10 months. The degree of price rigidity varies substantially across sectors and depends strongly on economic features, such as the intensity of competition, the exposure to foreign markets and the share of labour costs in total cost. Instead, country specificities, mostly related to the labour marketÂ’s institutional setting, are more relevant in characterising the pattern of wage adjustment. The latter also exhibits a substantial degree of time-dependence, as firms tend to concentrate wage changes in a specific month, mostly January in the majority of countries. Wage and price changes feed into each other at the micro level and there is a relationship between wage and price rigidity.survey, wage rigidity, price rigidity, indexation, labour market institutions, time dependence

Structure of a Semideciduous Seasonal Forest in the National Forest of Ipanema, Brazil: Contributing to the Floristic Knowledge of a Poorly Studied Protected Area

Studies on composition and structure generate crucial information for characterizing plant communities and planning conservation actions. There are still substantial knowledge gaps in Brazilian protected areas, preventing design programs to mitigate biodiversity loss. This is the case of the National Forest of Ipanema (Ipanema NAFO) in São Paulo state, Brazil, where plant diversity remains uncalculated. To help fill this gap, in 1-ha of a seasonal semideciduous forest (SSF) stand on the Araçoiaba hill, the authors sampled all woody stems with dbh ≥ 5 cm in a total of 103 dead and 1,301 living plants representing 65 species, 57 genera, and 31 families. The number of species and families was lower than old-growth SSF and, together with the land-use history, which suggests the community is a secondary stand. The initial species Guazuma ulmifolia, Machaerium stipitatum, Croton floribundus, and Aloysia virgata totalized 50% of the living stems, whereas 37% of the other species summed up only 1.8%. The high abundance of these initial species and the presence of the climax species Cariniana legalis, Holocayx balansae, Myroxylon peruiferum, Zanthoxylum caribaeum and others indicate that the community is in an intermediate to advanced successional stage. Three species are considered vulnerable to extinction and 27 of least concern. Ipanema NAFO is an important conservation unit, sheltering some plants vulnerable to extinction and others locally rare. This study adds to other few studies about the flora of Ipanema NAFO, helping to estimate its biodiversity and planning conservation actions. Additionally, it is a source for defining reference values for ecological restoration in the Atlantic forest

Chromosome studies on Brazilian cerrado plants

Cerrado is the Brazilian name for the neotropical savanna, which occurs mainly in Brazilian Central Plateau, composed of herbaceous-subshrubby and shrubby-arboreal floras, both of which are heliophilous, highly diverse and regionally differentiated. Considering species distribution and chromosome numbers, some authors have proposed that the herbaceous-subshrubby flora of the neotropical savanna is quite old, while the shrubby-arboreal flora is derived from forests, a hypothesis that implies higher chromosome numbers in the savanna than in the forest. If, however, chromosome numbers are similar in the cerrado and in forests, both could be similarly old, indicating that bi-directional flow of flora occurred in the past. This paper presents data on chromosome numbers and microsporogenesis for 20 species in 13 families collected in the States of São Paulo, Goiás and Minas Gerais, providing previously unpublished data for Myrcia (Myrtaceae), Luxemburgia (Ochnaceae) and Hortia (Rutaceae). Meiosis proved to be normal, indicating regularity in the sexual reproductive process. Chromosome numbers varied from 2n = 18 (Allamanda angustifolia: Apocynaceae) to 2n = ca. 104 (Ouratea spectabilis: Ochnaceae), being low (20 < 2n < 30) in most of the species. Since similar numbers have been observed with forest species, it is not, at the moment, possible to support the hypothesis that cerrado species derived from the surrounding forests. Instead, we suggest the possibility of a bi-directional exchange of floristic elements between cerrado and forests during evolutionary time.Cerrado é a palavra que, no Brasil, designa a savana neotropical, com área nuclear no Planalto Central, constituída de uma flora herbáceo-subarbustiva e outra arbustivo-arbórea, ambas heliófilas, altamente diversificadas e regionalmente diferenciadas. Considerando a distribuição de espécies e de números cromossômicos, alguns autores propuseram que a flora herbáceo-subarbustiva da savanna neotropical seria bastante antiga, enquanto a flora arbustivo-arbórea seria derivada das florestas Atlântica e Amazônica, uma hipótese que implica na ocorrência de números cromossômicos mais altos no cerrado que nas florestas. Porém, se os números cromossômicos forem similares no cerrado e nas florestas, ambos os tipos de formação poderiam ser similarmente antigos, indicando que um fluxo florístico bidirecional entre o cerrado e as florestas teria ocorrido no passado. Este trabalho apresenta dados sobre números cromossômicos e microsporogênese de 20 espécies em 13 famílias, coletadas nos estados de São Paulo, Goiás e Minas Gerais, trazendo informações inéditas para Myrcia (Myrtaceae), Luxemburgia (Ochnaceae) e Hortia (Rutaceae). A meiose mostrou-se normal, indicando regularidade no processo reprodutivo sexual. Os números cromossômicos variaram de 2n = 18 (Allamanda angustifolia: Apocynaceae) a 2n = ca. 104 (Ouratea spectabilis: Ochnaceae), sendo baixos (20 < 2n < 30) na maioria das espécies. Como números cromossômicos similares têm sido encontrados também em espécies florestais, torna-se impossível, no momento, corroborar a hipótese de que espécies arbustivo-arbóreas do cerrado sejam derivadas de espécies das florestas limítrofes. Sugerimos que tenha havido uma troca bidirecional de elementos entre o cerrado e as florestas durante o tempo evolutivo.947955Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq

O método de pontos

The point method has been utilized in many situations, with or without modifications; it has also been compared to other methods and critically discussed. A review of the literature reveals the advantages (speed precision, minimum disturbance of the stand) and disadvantages (dependence on diameter of the needle, wind action). A new index is introduced and discussed. It is referred to as the cover index (CI) and is obtained by summing absolute frequency, which represents cover, and absolute vigor, which is associated with biomass.O método de pontos foi usado em diversas situações, comparado com outros métodos, modificado e amplamente discutido e criticado, podendo-se ter através da revisão bibliográfica uma visão de suas vantagens e limitações, salientando-se naquelas a sua rapidez, precisão e pouca perturbação causada na vege tação e nestas, o diâmetro da agulha e a ação do vento. Neste trabalho está sendo introduzido e discutido um novo índice, denominado ín dice de cobertura (IC), obtido da soma dos valores absolutos de freqüência, que representa a cobertura e de vigor, associado à biomassa.9512

The role of edaphic environment and climate in structuring phylogenetic pattern in seasonally dry tropical plant communities

This study was made possible through the kind financial support of the São Paulo Research Foundation - http://fapesp.br/en (Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo - Fapesp 2013/15280-9).Seasonally dry tropical plant formations (SDTF) are likely to exhibit phylogenetic clustering owing to niche conservatism driven by a strong environmental filter (water stress), but heterogeneous edaphic environments and life histories may result in heterogeneity in degree of phylogenetic clustering. We investigated phylogenetic patterns across ecological gradients related to water availability (edaphic environment and climate) in the Caatinga, a SDTF in Brazil. Caatinga is characterized by semiarid climate and three distinct edaphic environments – sedimentary, crystalline, and inselberg –representing a decreasing gradient in soil water availability. We used two measures of phylogenetic diversity: Net Relatedness Index based on the entire phylogeny among species present in a site, reflecting long-term diversification; and Nearest Taxon Index based on the tips of the phylogeny, reflecting more recent diversification. We also evaluated woody species in contrast to herbaceous species. The main climatic variable influencing phylogenetic pattern was precipitation in the driest quarter, particularly for herbaceous species, suggesting that environmental filtering related to minimal periods of precipitation is an important driver of Caatinga biodiversity, as one might expect for a SDTF. Woody species tended to show phylogenetic clustering whereas herbaceous species tended towards phylogenetic overdispersion. We also found phylogenetic clustering in two edaphic environments (sedimentary and crystalline) in contrast to phylogenetic overdispersion in the third (inselberg). We conclude that while niche conservatism is evident in phylogenetic clustering in the Caatinga, this is not a universal pattern likely due to heterogeneity in the degree of realized environmental filtering across edaphic environments. Thus, SDTF, in spite of a strong shared environmental filter, are potentially heterogeneous in phylogenetic structuring. Our results support the need for scientifically informed conservation strategies in the Caatinga and other SDTF regions that have not previously been prioritized for conservation in order to take into account this heterogeneity.Publisher PDFPeer reviewe

Reliability evaluation of wind regime estimates provided by the brams model for Alagoas state (Brazilian Northeastern Region): influence of nesting and horizontal resolution grids

Observational data obtained at two wind towers located at the Alagoas State (Northeast of Brazil -NEB) were used to evaluate the influence of horizontal grid setup on the reliability of wind estimates provided by the numerical weather prediction model BRAMS. Statistical analysis were performed to evaluate the model skill in reproducing the temporal evolution, frequency distribution and the mean daily cycle of the wind observations in both locations. The study was performed for the two typical climate seasons: the rainy (May/2008) and the dry one (November/2008). The results demonstrated that the deviations of wind estimates gets lower if the horizontal grid resolution is increased from 8 km to 2 km. No results improvement occurred when using horizontal grid resolution higher than 2 km. The confiability on wind speed estimates were higher at Girau do Ponciano (GRP), located in the continental area where the sea breeze is less important to the atmospheric dynamic. The results demonstrate that wind data observations play an important role in defining the best configuration and parameterization model to better estimates the availability of wind energy on a specific region, particularly for NEB.Os resultados do estudo comparativo entre os dados observados em duas torres anemométricas instaladas no estado de Alagoas, com estimativas de vento produzidas em simulações numéricas realizadas com o modelo de mesoescala BRAMS, são apresentados e discutidos com o intuito de investigar a influência do refinamento da resolução horizontal e do aninhamento de grades na confiabilidade das estimativas de vento. As torres estavam instaladas em regiões de características distintas do ponto de vista ambiental e climatológico. Análises estatísticas foram realizadas para avaliar o desempenho do modelo no que se refere à capacidade de fornecer estimativas de vento que reproduzam a evolução temporal, o ciclo médio diário e a distribuição de frequência do vento observado nas duas localidades. O estudo foi realizado para as duas estações sazonais características da região: estação chuvosa (Maio/2008) e seca (Novembro/2008). Os resultados mostraram que houve um aumento na confiabilidade das estimativas da velocidade do vento quando a resolução horizontal passou de 8 km para 2 km. O ganho em confiabilidade foi mais significativo em Girau do Ponciano (GRP) localizada no interior do estado e que sofre menor influência do fenômeno de brisa marítima. O aumento da resolução horizontal para valores abaixo de 2 km não produziu redução importante dos desvios observados na estimativa da velocidade do vento pelo modelo na configuração adotada neste estudo. Os resultados demonstram a importância da aquisição de dados de campo para a investigação da confiabilidade, e ajuste das configurações e parametrizações inseridas em modelos numéricos, utilizados para estimar ou preReliability evaluation of wind regime estimates provided by the brams model for alagoas state (brazilian northeastern region): influence of nesting and horizontal resolution gridsver a disponibilidade de energia eólica em uma região específica.Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais Centro de Ciência do Sistema TerrestreUniversidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP) Instituto do MarInstituto de Aeronáutica e Espaço Departamento de Ciência e Tecnologia AeroespacialUniversidade Federal de Alagoas Departamento de MeteorologiaUNIFESP, Instituto do MarSciEL

Physiognomy and organization of the carrasco vegetation on the Ibiapaba plateau, Northeastern Brazil

Is the carrasco on the Ibiapaba plateau a unique plant formation? To answer this question the vertical height (except of climbers) and the stem basal diameter (from 3cm on) of woody plants were measured, and soil extracts (0-50 and 50-100cm depth) were taken from 100 random plots (10x10m) at Jaburuna (3º54'34S and 40º59'24W, altitudes near 830m), municipality of Ubajara, Ceará State. Data on climate, soil, diameter height, density, basal area, and physiognomy were compared with those surveyed by other researchers from the carrasco, caatinga, and cerrado in Northeastern Brazil. The carrasco occurs under an annual rainfall of between 668 and 1,289mm and temperatures from 22 to 24ºC, on alic Quartz Sand soils, at altitudes between 700 and 900m: it has a larger density and a smaller basal area than the caatinga and the cerrado, small and similar diameters, and an average vertical height between 3,7 and 5,4m. It differs from the caatinga, cerrado (and cerradão) and secondary forest in many items of lhe ecotope, organization and physiognomy, thus being a unique plain formation, which can be characterized as a deciduous, high, closed, and unistratified shrubland intermingled by lianas, with an irregular canopy and sparse, emergent trees.O carrasco no planalto da Ibiapaba constitui formação vegetal própria? Para responder a essa questão, mediram-se a altura vertical (menos das trepadeiras) e o diâmetro basal (a partir de 3cm) do caule de plantas lenhosas e extraíram-se alíquotas de solo (0-50cm, 50-100cm de de profundidade) de 100 parcelas (10x10m) aleatórias em Jaburuna (3º54'34S e 40º59'24W, altitudes em torno de 830m), município de Ubajara, Estado do Ceará. Dados de clima, solo, diâmetro, altura, densidade, área basal e fisionomia foram comparados com os levantados por outros autores em carrasco, caatinga é cerrado no nordeste. O carrasco ocorre sob precipitação anual média entre 668 e 1.289mm e temperaturas entre 22 e 24ºC, sobre solo de Areias Quartzosas álicas, em altitudes entre 700e 900m: tem densidade maior e área basal menor que a catinga e o cerrado, diâmetros pequenos e similares, altura vertical média entre 3,7 e 5,4m. Difere da caatinga, do cerrado (e do cerradão) e da capoeira em vários aspectos do ecótopo, da organização e da fisionomia, sendo formação vegetal própria, que pode ser caracterizada como fruticeto caducifólio alto, fechado, uniestratificado, com trepadeiras, dossel irregular e árvores emergentes esparsas.011

What Firms' Surveys Tell Us about Price-Setting Behavior in the Euro Area

This study investigates the pricing behavior of firms in the euro area on the basis of surveys conducted by nine Eurosystem national central banks, covering more than 11,000 firms. The results, consistent across countries, show that firms operate in monopolistically competitive markets, where prices are mostly set following markup rules and where price discrimination is common. Around one-third of firms follow mainly timedependent pricing rules, while two-thirds allow for elements of state dependence. The majority of the firms take into account both past and expected economic developments in their pricing decisions. Price reviews happen with a low frequency, of about one to three times per year in most countries, but prices are actually changed even less. Hence, price stickiness arises at both stages of the price-setting process and is mainly driven by customer relationships — explicit and implicit contracts — and coordination failure. Firms adjust prices asymmetrically in response to shocks: while cost shocks have a greater impact when prices have to be raised than when they have to be reduced, a fall in demand is more likely to induce a price change than an increase in demand