Vapaa laiva, vapaa kauppatavara. Alankomaiden ulkopolitiikka sekä kauppasuhteet Tanskan ja Ruotsin kanssa 1675–1690

This dissertation deals with the foreign policy and commercial relations of the Dutch Republic with the two Nordic kingdoms of Denmark and Sweden by examining the period of wars, alliances and treaty negotiations in 1675–1690. The thesis shows, on the one hand, how and why political alliances and wars influenced Dutch commercial relations with Denmark and Sweden. On the other hand, it demonstrates the role of Dutch commercial interests in the processes of shaping the Dutch foreign relations with Denmark and Sweden. In previous research, the Dutch trade with Northern Europe has been perceived as the “mother of all trades” (moedernegotie), supplying bulk products for the urbanized regions of the Dutch Republic. In the late 17th century, however, political conflicts in Europe endangered both the position of the Dutch Republic as a sovereign power and the ability to sustain the worldwide Dutch trading empire. In the 1670s, Sweden was a political ally of France and at war against the Dutch Republic, Denmark and Brandenburg in 1675–1679. In the 1680s, Denmark was the ally of France, as the Dutch Republic and Sweden moved closer toward each other politically. While this political rivalry was central for the Dutch foreign policies primarily coordinated by the Stadtholder William III, commercial interests influenced foreign political decision-making. The thesis draws upon recent understanding of the nature of early modern interstate relations and the agency of different social groups in the ancien régime. The study highlights the role of the Amsterdam regents, merchants and lower-ranked diplomatic representatives as actors stressing commercial interests in Dutch foreign political decision-making. To grasp the complexity of these processes, the thesis utilizes a theoretical framework of the two-level game of early modern interstate relations, following the works of Marco Cesa and Robert Putnam. The analysis is based on original sources from different archival collections in the Netherlands, Denmark and Sweden. The study shows that the Dutch foreign political decision-making, characterized by wars and alliances directed against the French threat, influenced Dutch-Nordic commercial relations in manifold yet sometimes contradictory ways. Dutch subjects actively reported violations and mistreatments to their Dutch representatives in the Nordic kingdoms. At the same time, in the Dutch Republic, groups of merchants directed their requests in the local gatherings of the municipal administration in Amsterdam, the States of Holland and the Dutch States General. In the beginning of the war against Sweden, Dutch-Swedish commercial relations were normalized by a trade agreement allowing trade to continue despite the war. This commercial diplomacy, however, caused problems in Dutch-Danish relations since the allies did not agree on the question of trading with the enemy. While the peace treaties made in 1679 were followed by Dutch-Swedish rapprochement, the Dutch-Danish relations deteriorated. In the 1680s, the Dutch economic position in Sweden improved while the disputes relating to the treatment of Dutch subjects in the Danish Sound and Norwegian ports led to the Dutch-Danish commercial war. This period was followed by a profound shift caused by the outbreak of the Nine Years War, which changed the dynamics of interstate relations between the Dutch Republic and Nordic kingdoms.Väitöskirja käsittelee Alankomaiden ulkopolitiikkaa ja kauppasuhteita Ruotsin sekä Tanskan kanssa 1600-luvun lopulla. Tutkimus keskittyy erityisesti vuosiin 1675–1690, jolloin näitä suhteita leimasivat sodat, vaihtelevat liittosuhteet sekä sopimusneuvottelut. Tutkimus tuo yhtäältä esille miksi ja miten poliittisten liittosuhteiden muodostaminen sekä sodat vaikuttivat Alankomaiden kauppasuhteisiin Tanskan ja Ruotsin kanssa. Toisaalta tutkimus osoittaa minkälainen rooli kaupallisilla intresseillä oli poliittisten suhteiden kehityksessä. Aikaisemmassa tutkimuksessa Alankomaiden kauppaa Pohjois-Eurooppan kanssa on kutsuttu "kaikkien kauppojen äidiksi" tai "äitikaupaksi" (moedernegotie); erityisesti Hollanti Euroopan kaupungistuneimpana alueena sai tyydytettyä suuren bulkkitavaran tarpeensa tuonnilla Itämeren piiristä. Tätä kauppaa sekä yleisemmin Alankomaiden asemaa maailmanlaajuisena kauppamahtina ja suurvaltana uhkasivat kuitenkin lukuisat poliittiset konfliktit, erityisesti Ranskaa ja sen liittolaisia vastaan. Itämeren piirissä Ranskan liittolainen Ruotsi oli sodassa Alankomaita, Tanskaa ja Brandenburgia vastaan vuosina 1675–1679. Tämän jälkeen Tanska liittoutui Ranskan kanssa samalla kun Alankomaat ja Ruotsi lähentyivät poliittisesti. Vaikka Alankomaiden ulkopolitiikan suuntaviivat piirsi käskynhaltija Vilhelm III, kaupalliset intressit vaikuttivat ulkopoliittiseen päätöksentekoon myös 1600-luvun lopulla. Väitöskirjan metodologinen lähtökohta pohjautuu viimeaikaisiin tutkimusnäkökulmiin ja -tuloksiin erilaisten yhteiskuntaryhmien roolista uuden ajan alun yhteiskunnissa. Tutkimus korostaa Amsterdamin vaikutusvaltaisen poliitikkoryhmän, kauppiaiden ja alemman rankitason diplomaattiedustajien toiminnan merkitystä Alankomaiden ulkopoliittisessa päätöksenteossa ja ulkosuhteissa. Näiden prosessien havainnollistamiseksi tutkimuksessa hyödynnetään uuden ajan alun yhteiskuntiin sovellettavaa kahden tason peliteoreettista mallia (two-level game of early modern interstate relations), joka pohjautuu yhtäältä Marco Cesan ja toisaalta Robert Putnamin tutkimuksiin kansainvälisten suhteiden monitasoisuudesta. Tutkimuksen empiirisenä pohjana on aiemmin suurelta osin hyödyntämättömät alkuperäislähdeaineistot Alankomaiden, Tanskan ja Ruotsin eri arkistokokoelmista. Tutkimus osoittaa, että Ranskan uhkaa vastaan suunnattu Alankomaiden ulkopoliittinen päätöksenteko vaikutti alankomaalais-pohjoismaalaisiin kauppasuhteisiin moninaisilla, joskin toisinaan ristiriitaisilla tavoilla. Hollantilaiset kauppiaat ja laivurit raportoivat aktiivisesti väärinkäytöksistä Alankomaiden diplomaattiedustajille Tanskassa ja Ruotsissa. Samalla kauppiasryhmät pyrkivät saamaan äänensä kuuluviin paikallisissa kaupungin, provinssien ja yleissäätyjen kokouksissa Alankomaissa. Skoonen sodan (1675-1679) alussa Alankomaiden kauppasuhteet Ruotsin kanssa normalisoitiin siitä huolimatta, että maat olivat sodassa toisiaan vastaan. Tämä kauppadiplomatia aiheutti kuitenkin ongelmia suhteissa poliittisen liittolaisen Tanskan kanssa erityisesti liittyen kaupankäyntiin vihollismaan kanssa. Näin ollen Alankomaiden suhteiden parantuessa Ruotsin kanssa vuoden 1679 rauhanteossa suhteet Tanskaan heikkenivät. Seuraavalla vuosikymmenellä Alankomaiden taloussuhteet ja hollantilaisten taloudellinen asema Ruotsissa paranivat kun taas suhteet Tanskaan heikkenivät entisestään eskaloituen lopulta täydeksi kauppasodaksi. Yhdeksänvuotisen sodan alkaminen vuonna 1688 muutti kuitenkin näiden ulkosuhteiden logiikan, jolloin uusi vaihe Alankomaiden suhteissa Pohjois-Eurooppaan alkoi

Trade Must Go On. The Tar Trade, Nordic Rivalry, and Cross-Imperial Commercial Diplomacy, 1675–79

The Scanian War fought between Sweden and Denmark (1675–1679) is an example of an armed conflict, which uncovers the clash between the commercial and political interests. This article analyses the dispute between the political allies, the Danish Crown and the Dutch States General considering the trade with Sweden. The Danish naval officials had captured and confiscated the cargoes of seven Dutch tar vessels, heading to Amsterdam from present-day Finland in 1677, which resulted in a major political dispute between Denmark and the Dutch Republic. By drawing upon the methodology of new diplomatic history, the article analyses the negotiations between the diplomatic actors involved in the disputes relating to the confiscation of the ships, all of whom represented the various powers involved in the Baltic export trade.Peer reviewe

Quantitative characterization of pore structure of several biochars with 3D imaging

Pore space characteristics of biochars may vary depending on the used raw material and processing technology. Pore structure has significant effects on the water retention properties of biochar amended soils. In this work, several biochars were characterized with three-dimensional imaging and image analysis. X-ray computed microtomography was used to image biochars at resolution of 1.14 $\mu$m and the obtained images were analysed for porosity, pore-size distribution, specific surface area and structural anisotropy. In addition, random walk simulations were used to relate structural anisotropy to diffusive transport. Image analysis showed that considerable part of the biochar volume consist of pores in size range relevant to hydrological processes and storage of plant available water. Porosity and pore-size distribution were found to depend on the biochar type and the structural anisotopy analysis showed that used raw material considerably affects the pore characteristics at micrometre scale. Therefore attention should be paid to raw material selection and quality in applications requiring optimized pore structure.Comment: 16 pages, 4 figures. The final publication is available at Springer via http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-8823-

Diplomacy of an Empire : Alternative Agents in Seventeenth-Century Sweden

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Are there environmental or agricultural benefits in using forest residue biochar in boreal agricultural clay soil?

Short-term agronomic and environmental benefits are fundamental factors in encouraging farmers to use biochar on a broad scale. The short-term impacts of forest residue biochar (BC) on the productivity and carbon (C) storage of arable boreal clay soil were studied in a field experiment. In addition, rain simulations and aggregate stability tests were carried out to investigate the potential of BC to reduce nutrient export to surface waters. A BC addition of 30 t ha−1 increased soil test phosphorus and decreased bulk density in the surface soil but did not significantly change pH or water retention properties, and most importantly, did not increase the yield. There were no changes in the bacterial or fungal communities, or biomasses. Soil basal respiration was higher in BC-amended plots in the spring, but no differences in respiration rates were detected in the fall two years after the application. Rain simulation experiments did not support the use of BC in reducing erosion or the export of nutrients from the field. Of the C added, on average 80% was discovered in the 0–45 cm soil layer one year after the application. Amendment of boreal clay soil with a high rate of BC characterized by a moderately alkaline pH, low surface functionalities, and a recalcitrant nature, did not induce such positive impacts that would unambiguously motivate farmers to invest in BC. BC use seems unviable from the farmer's perspective but could play a role in climate change mitigation, as it will likely serve as long-term C storage.202

Micro-computed tomography and brightness-mode ultrasound show air entrapments inside tablets

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Characterization of biochar pore structure with X-ray tomography

Biochar use as soil amendment can influence both physical and chemical properties of soil. The effects of biochar depend on the raw material from which biochar is derived as well as on the used processing technology and process conditions. One commonly highlighted benefit of biochar application is improved water retention properties of soil. Biochar may affect water retention in direct or direct way. In direct mechanism water is stored and held in the biochar pores while in indirect mechanisms biochar contributes to the soil structural development (aggregation). Please click on the file below for full content of the abstract

Novel osteoconductive β-tricalcium phosphate/poly(L-lactide-co-e-caprolactone) scaffold for bone regeneration : a study in a rabbit calvarial defect

The advantages of synthetic bone graft substitutes over autogenous bone grafts include abundant graft volume, lack of complications related to the graft harvesting, and shorter operation and recovery times for the patient. We studied a new synthetic supercritical CO2 -processed porous composite scaffold of -tricalcium phosphate and poly(L-lactide-co-caprolactone) copolymer as a bone graft substitute in a rabbit calvarial defect. Bilateral 12mm diameter critical size calvarial defects were successfully created in 18 rabbits. The right defect was filled with a scaffold moistened with bone marrow aspirate, and the other was an empty control. The material was assessed for applicability during surgery. The follow-up times were 4, 12, and 24 weeks. Radiographic and micro-CT studies and histopathological analysis were used to evaluate new bone formation, tissue ingrowth, and biocompatibility. The scaffold was easy to shape and handle during the surgery, and the bone-scaffold contact was tight when visually evaluated after the implantation. The material showed good biocompatibility and its porosity enabled rapid invasion of vasculature and full thickness mesenchymal tissue ingrowth already at four weeks. By 24 weeks, full thickness bone ingrowth within the scaffold and along the dura was generally seen. In contrast, the empty defect had only a thin layer of new bone at 24 weeks. The radiodensity of the material was similar to the density of the intact bone. In conclusion, the new porous scaffold material, composed of microgranular -TCP bound into the polymer matrix, proved to be a promising osteoconductive bone graft substitute with excellent handling properties [GRAPHICS]Peer reviewe

Validation of the X-ray microtomography in the assessment of duodenal morphometry and surface area in celiac disease

BackgroundDuodenal histology remains the diagnostic reference standard in celiac disease. However, traditional methods have suboptimal sensitivity and reproducibility for early mucosal changes and research purposes. We validated a recently introduced micro-CT imaging method for an accurate digital evaluation of duodenal histomorphometry and mucosal surface areas. MethodsEndoscopic biopsies from 58 individuals were utilized for the micro-CT imaging, selecting histological changes ranging from normal to severely damaged mucosa. The imaging protocol was optimized for practicability and resolution. The Bland-Altman method was applied to test intra- and interobserver variations in the blinded measurements. ResultsThe 3D micro-CT reconstructions enabled easy and precise digital cutting with optimal orientation and computer-assisted measurement of the surface area. Intraobserver analysis of morphological measurements showed a mean difference of 0.011 with limits of agreement (LA) from -0.397 to 0.375 and a standard deviation (SD) of 0.197. The corresponding figures for interobserver analysis were 0.080, from -0.719 to 0.537 and 0.320, respectively. The intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC) for the intraobserver and interobserver variations were 0.981 and 0.954, respectively. Intraobserver surface area analysis yielded a mean difference of 0.010, LA from -0.764 to 0.785 and an SD of 0.395, and an interobserver analysis mean difference of 0.028, LA from -0.642 to 0.698 and SD of 0.342. The respective ICCs for the intra- and interobserver variations were 0.963 and 0.972. ConclusionsMicro-CT showed excellent accuracy and reproducibility in the evaluation of mucosal morphometry and surface areas. The improved sensitivity for histological changes is a powerful tool for the diagnosis of celiac disease and for clinical and pharmacological studies.Peer reviewe