Chained activation of the motor system during language understanding

Two experiments were carried out to investigate whether and how one important characteristic of the motor system, that is its goal-directed organization in motor chains, is reflected in language processing. This possibility stems from the embodied theory of language, according to which the linguistic system re-uses the structures of the motor system. The participants were presented with nouns of common tools preceded by a pair of verbs expressing grasping or observational motor chains (i.e., grasp-to-move, grasp-to-use, look-at-to-grasp, and look-at-to-stare). They decided whether the tool mentioned in the sentence was the same as that displayed in a picture presented shortly after. A primacy of the grasp-to-use motor chain over the other motor chains in priming the participants' performance was observed in both the experiments. More interestingly, we found that the motor information evoked by the noun was modulated by the specific motor-chain expressed by the preceding verbs. Specifically, with the grasping chain aimed at using the tool, the functional motor information prevailed over the volumetric information, and vice versa with the grasping chain aimed at moving the tool (Experiment 2). Instead, the functional and volumetric information were balanced for those motor chains that comprise at least an observational act (Experiment 1). Overall our results are in keeping with the embodied theory of language and suggest that understanding sentences expressing an action directed toward a tool drives a chained activation of the motor system

Multiple paternity and hybridization in two smooth-hound sharks

Multiple paternity appears to be a common trait of elasmobranch mating systems, with its occurrence likely driven by convenience, due to females seeking to minimize the stress of male harassment. Here we use molecular markers to analyse the frequency of multiple paternity in two related viviparous sharks, Mustelus mustelus and Mustelus punctulatus. We first applied molecular methods to assign pregnant females, embryos and additional reference adults (N\u2009=\u2009792) to one of the two species. Paternity analysis was performed using a total of 9 polymorphic microsatellites on 19 females and 204 embryos of M. mustelus, and on 13 females and 303 embryos of M. punctulatus. Multiple paternity occurs in both species, with 47% of M. mustelus and 54% of M. punctulatus litters sired by at least two fathers. Female fecundity is not influenced by multiple mating and in 56% of polyandrous litters paternity is skewed, with one male siring most of the pups. Genetic analyses also revealed hybridization between the two species, with a M. punctulatus female bearing pups sired by a M. mustelus male. The frequency of polyandrous litters in these species is consistent with aspects of their reproductive biology, such as synchronous ovulation and possible occurrence of breeding aggregations

Addictive-like behaviour for Acetaldehyde: involvement of D2 receptors

Acetaldehyde (ACD), ethanol's first metabolite, is centrally active and shows rewarding and motivational properties. It is able to activate mesolimbic dopamine system, since it enhances neuronal firing of dopamine cells in ventral tegmental area and exerts dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens (Foddai et al., 2004; Melis et al., 2007; Deehan et al., 2013). ACD motivational properties are demonstrated by self-administration studies in rodents (Rodd et al., 2005), particularly behavioural evidence suggests that ACD could produce positive reinforcing effects in operant-conflict paradigms (Cacace et al., 2012). In order to shed light on neurobiological substrate underpinning ACD-related behaviours, the present study aims at investigating D2-receptor role in the different phases of an operant self-administration paradigm, able to mirror core feature of addictive phenotype. Male Wistar rats underwent ACD (3.2%) oral self-administration, in an operant paradigm which includes Training, Extinction, and repeated cycle of forced abstinence and relapse, as a simple reinstatement model. The effect of two different D2-receptor agonists was evaluated. Quinpirole (0.03 mg/kg, i.p.) was administered during Extinction and Relapse phases. Ropinirole (0.03; 0.05 mg/kg, i.p.) was injected daily during abstinence. Our results show that ACD is able to induce and maintain a drug-taking behaviour, which involves D2-receptor neurotransmission. In particular, Quinpirole administration can decrease the number of lever presses for ACD during Extinction and Relapse phases; Ropinirole daily administration during abstinence, at both dosages, is able to reduce the number of lever presses and ACD intake in the relapse phase. ACD has its own motivational properties, which involve dopamine neurotransmission. Activation of D2-autoreceptors by Quinpirole negatively affects operant behaviour for ACD, likely decreasing ACD-induced dopamine release. The activation of post-synaptical D2-receptor, by Ropinirole treatment during abstinence, could restore dopaminergic tone during withdrawal, leading to a decrease in the motivation to subsequent relapse. These data further strengthen the evidence that ACD may play a crucial role in ethanol's central effects

Manipulation of the DA signal on the onset of relapse of ACD

It's widely known that all addictive drugs show analogous pathological behaviours consisting in compulsive drug seeking,loss of self –control and propensity to relapse. This evidence is suggestive of a common brain mechanism involving the Ventral Tegmental Area and Nucleus Accumbens whereby mesocorticolimbimc dopamine pathway. Dfferent and apparently anthitetic classes of drugs of abuse manage to increase DA release, in the aforementioned areas (Di Chiara, 1988; 1995). Reductions in activity of the mesolimbic dopamine system in the nucleus accumbes occur during drug withdrawal in animal studies (Weiss F et al. 1992; 1996). Experimental evidences have proven D2 receptor involvement in drug seeking and reinstatement behaviours. In that, according to the hypo-dopaminergic hypothesis of drug abuse, striatal D2-receptors significantly decrease during forced abstinence (Thanos, 2008). These premises suggest that D2 receptor manipulations might represent a valid strategy for alcohol dependence. Ropinirole, a D2-D3 receptors agonist, apparently acting on post-synaptical terminal and thus previously administered in methamphetamine withdrawal (Hoefer, 2006), could reduce drug intake in the reinstatement by means of its presumable properties in compensating DA reduction during abstinence. Acetaldehyde, alcohol first metabolite, is able to induce and maintain an operantdrinking behaviour, because of its addictive properties (Cacace, 2012). This research pointed at evaluating Ropinirole protective effect on ACD relapse as a possible therapeutic tool, together with a dose-response investigation. Rats were trained to self-administer ACD 3,2% solution along 30 days. Then, animals underwent three cycles, each one consisting of withdrawal (7days) followed by relapse phase (5 days). The first withdrawal-relapse cycle provided basal information of animal responses for ACD. During the second withdrawal phase, rats were treated i.p. daily with Ropinirole under the dosage of 0.03mg/kg. A third cycle of withdrawal and relapse was performed so as to correlate the drug potency to a higher dosage of 0.05mg/kg. Preliminary data convey that the aforementioned DA agonist is able to reduce animal responses for ACD also at the latter dosage, which is proved by a lower frequency of lever presses during the third relapse phase. An open field test was used to exclude a not specific Ropinirole effect on reducing locomotor activity and to assess dopaminergic activation by measuring the number of episodes of stereotypes, such as grooming and rearing. Our results indicated that this DA agonist, administered during withdrawal phase, is able to limit ACD reinstatement with responses dose-related. Such studies may be implemented in order to assess Ropinirole efficacy in other drug addictions, starting with alcoholism investigation

Effect of acetaldehyde intoxication and withdrawal on NPY expression: focus on endocannabinoidergic system involvement

Acetaldehyde (ACD), the first alcohol metabolite, plays a pivotal role in the rewarding, motivational, and addictive properties of the parental compound. Many studies have investigated the role of ACD in mediating neurochemical and behavioral effects induced by alcohol administration, but very little is known about the modulation of neuropeptide systems following ACD intoxication and withdrawal. Indeed, the neuropeptideY (NPY) system is altered during alcohol withdrawal in key regions for cerebrocortical excitability and neuroplasticity.The primary goal of this research was to investigate the effects of ACD intoxication and withdrawal by recording rat behavior and by measuring NPY immunoreactivity in hippocampus and NAcc, two brain regions mainly involved in processes which encompass neuroplasticity in alcohol dependence. Furthermore, on the basis of the involvement of endocannabinoidergic system in alcohol and ACD reinforcing effects, the role of the selective CB1 receptor antagonist AM281 in modulating NPY expression during withdrawal was assessed. Our results indicate that (i) ACD intoxication induced a reduction in NPY expression in hippocampus and NAcc; (ii) symptoms of physical dependence, similar to alcohol’s,were scored at 12 h from the last administration of ACD; and (iii) NPY levels increased in early and prolonged acute withdrawal in both brain regions examined. The administration of AM281 was able to blunt signs of ACD-induced physical dependence, to modulate NPY levels, and to further increase NPY expression during ACD withdrawal both in hippocampus and NAcc. In conclusion, the present study shows that complex plastic changes take place in NPY system during ACD intoxication and subsequent withdrawal in rat hippocampal formation and NAcc. The pharmacological inhibition of CB1 signaling could counteract the neurochemical imbalance associated with ACD, and alcohol withdrawal, likely boosting the setting up of homeostatic functional recover

Pregnenolone sulphate improves memory processing in early-handled female rats

Early life experiences lead to sex-specific behavioural and neurochemical changes in adulthood. Indeed, early handling enhances learning and memory in male rats (Cannizzaro et al., 2005), whereas it impairs learning performance in female adult rats, a finding that has been correlated to decreased nitric oxide (NO) production in the hippocampus (Noschang et al., 2010). Pregnenolone sulfate (PREGS) is considered as one of the most potent memory-enhancing neurosteroids, since its activity as a potent positive modulator of N-methyl-d-aspartate receptors (NMDARs) and a negative modulator of gamma-aminobutyric acid(A) receptors (GABA(A)Rs) (Vallée et al., 2001). Given these premises, this study aims at characterizing the effect of PREGS on cognitive processes in adult female rats, subject to early handling protocol, by using an object-place association learning task, the ''Can test'', a motivated, non-aversive, spatial/object discrimination test (Popovic´ et al., 2001). Female Wistar rats underwent daily, brief, maternal separation from postnatal day 2 until 21. Once in adulthood, the effect of PREGS administration (10 mg/kg, s.c.) on correct responses, reference memory and working memory was assessed. Results show that PREGS was able to significantly increase the number of correct responses, and consistently, to decrease reference and working memory errors, compared with vehicle. No statistically significant effect of PREGS administration was observed in non-handled, control group. These findings sustain the impact of neurosteroids in learning and memory processing, and suggest a particular role for PREGS in reversing conditions of altered functionality, likely due to the modulation of the glutamate-NO-cGMP pathway (Cauli et al., 2011), and thus neurobiological mechanisms underlying learning and memory. As a consequence, PREGS may represent an important therapeutic tool as memory-enhancer, in order to tackle cognitive deficit caused by stress in early lif

The Rorschach method for obesity assessment: clinical study on a group of obese women

SUMMARY. Aim. The purpose of this study is to explore through the Rorschach method the psychological and personological profile of the woman with obesity. Methods. The Rorschach test was administered to 10 women with body mass index of 41.86±9.9 kg/m2 at the clinic for obesity surgical treatment at the University Hospital “Paolo Giaccone” of Palermo. Results. The quantitative and qualitative analysis of the Rorschach responses detected in the study show: limited practical and creative sense in managing daily life situations, rigid control of emotions, affective turmoil, sense of inadequacy; sufficient examination of reality and adaptation social. Conclusion. The Rorschach method can be the privileged instrument for obesity, for its remarkable projective value, because it allows to capture the psychic suffering of the obese person, the representation and the image of the self, to identify the interaction between psycho-physical state and emotional investments

Vulnerability to alcohol operant-drinking behaviour: implications of environmental stim

Environmental stimuli, occurring early in life, shape the drinking trajectories and the psychopathological outcome of alcohol consumption in adult life. In particular, early perinatal procedures can permanently alter various patterns of drug use and behaviour in rat adulthood (Pryce CR, 2001). Early handling (EH) apparently is responsible for neurochemical and behavioural changes in adulthood, due to boosts in maternal care after daily reunion. It has been suggested that fostered maternal care, in the form of licking and grooming, is a key feature in determining neural changes and offspring fear responses and alter the reward/reinforcement pathway through epigenetic mechanisms that likely underlie remodeling in DA transmission (Francis, 2008, Francis et al., 2002). Such evidence is important, since fear together with stress, is thought to be related to vulnerability associated with drug abuse (Kreek and LaForge, 2007; Sinha and Li, 2007). Various studies on ethanol consumption and preference, showed less vulnerability to ethanol in adult male rats submitted to EH procedure (Ploj K, 2003). Based upon these findings, this study was aimed at examining the impact of brief early handling, 15-minute daily separations of litters from the dams during the first 2 weeks of life, on vulnerability to heavy drinking and dependence in adult male Wistar rats employed an operant self-administration procedure well known as a valid paradigm, highly predictive of drug-seeking and drug-taking behaviour in rats (Higgins et al., 1994). The operant-drinking behaviour protocol consisted of: 1) Training phase in which the animals learnt to self-administer EtOH 10% over 21 days; 2) Extinction phase during which reward delivery was suspended; 3) Deprivation period when ethanol self-administration was suspended for 7 days to achieve a forced abstinence; 4) Relapse phase, 7 days, to assess animal reinstatement for ethanol (Cacace, 2012). Our data revealed that EH procedure has a protective influence towards the onset and escalation of drug abuse, showing a reduction in addictive behaviour as displayed by a lower frequency of lever presses with respect to control group. These findings further corroborate the role of early life experiences on ethanol consumption in adulthood, highlighting that environmental influences may induce individual different responses to drug abuse