Commentary on fathers’ play: Measurement, conceptualization, culture, and connections with child development

The diverse set of studies in this special issue on fathers' play includes empirical research from several countries, observational measures of play, and multiple children's outcomes, including language, negativity, social competence, aggression and internalizing problems. The chief conclusion across studies is that the role of paternal play is important in various domains of child development. This is encouraging, yet also disturbing given the results of the State of the World's Fathers: Time for Action report 2017, revealing the low amount of care fathers provide to their children worldwide, relative to mothers. In this commentary, the measurement and conceptualization of play are discussed, as well as cultural considerations regarding the meaning and consequences of play. The findings of the studies are integrated in order to guide future research, addressing what domains of child development appear to be influenced by what types of paternal play, and discussing the contexts that affect paternal play. Lastly, the collective results are related to recent efforts to increase fathers' involvement and implications for interventions are discussed

Challenging parenting behavior from infancy to toddlerhood: Etiology, measurement, and differences between fathers and mothers

Based on evidence that fathers show more challenging and physical play than mothers, it has been theorized that fathers have a different parenting role, more focused at stimulating exploration and taking chances. Challenging parenting behavior (CPB) may foster confidence and buffer against anxiety development in children. In this study, CPB was assessed in fathers and mothers at child ages of 4 months, 1 year, and 2.5 years, using newly developed questionnaires and observational tasks. Reliability of the questionnaire and observational measures was good, and fathers' and mothers' self-rated CPB showed a similar factor structure. Modest and significant convergence between questionnaires and observations provided support for validity of CPB, whereas negative correlations with overprotection supported divergent validity. CPB correlated positively with warmth. We further found moderate to high stability of CPB from early infancy to toddlerhood, and interparental correspondence in CPB. Fathers and mothers did not differ in observed CPB, but fathers rated themselves higher than mothers in toddlerhood. It is concluded that the development of the instruments to assess CPB was successful. Overall, the results reveal similarities rather than differences between fathers' and mothers' CPB in early childhood. The potential relevance of CPB in child development and psychopathology is discussed

Cross-cultural differences in temperament: Comparing paternal ratings of US and Dutch infants

This study conducted longitudinal comparisons of US and Dutch paternal ratings of temperament, measured via the Infant Behaviour Questionnaire-Revised, at 4 months (US n = 99; Dutch n = 127) and 12 months (US n = 66; Dutch n = 112) of age. US fathers rated their infant higher in the broad temperament trait Surgency, and its subscales vocal reactivity, high-intensity pleasure, and activity level. US fathers also rated their infants higher in negative emotionality, and its subscales of sadness, distress to limitations, and fear. Dutch infants received higher ratings in falling reactivity. Though the cultures did not differ in ratings of Orienting/regulatory capacity, US infants were higher on the subscale duration of orienting, and lower in soothability. Significant culture-by-age and culture-by-gender interactions were also noted. Overall, results are largely consistent with those reported for Dutch mothers and speak to considerable differences in early temperament development between cultures viewed as largely similar because of their Western/individualistic orientations

Fathers’ challenging parenting behavior predicts less subsequent anxiety symptoms in early childhood

Recent theories propose that (especially fathers’) challenging parenting behavior (CPB) serves to reduce offspring's anxiety development, and that fearful children are more susceptible to parenting. Using a longitudinal design we explored whether more CPB (and less overprotection) of both parents, (1) separately, (2) relatively, and (3) jointly predicts less anxiety in early childhood, and (4) whether child fearful temperament moderates these relations. Participants were 132 couples with their first-born child. Child fearful temperament was observed at 4 months and 1 year, and parents’ CPB and overprotection at 1 and 2.5 years. Child anxiety symptoms were assessed at 2.5 and 4.5 years. Multilevel analyses showed that more CPB and, unexpectedly, more overprotection predicted less child anxiety. Relatively, fathers’ CPB and mothers’ overprotection predicted less anxiety. An interaction showed that if one parent shows low CPB, the other parent's higher CPB predicts less child anxiety. A trend interaction suggested that fathers’ CPB predicts less anxiety most strongly for fearful children. Thus, fathers’ CPB appears to play a protective role in anxiety development, possibly in particular for children most vulnerable to develop anxiety problems. Parents can compensate for a less challenging partner. The finding that maternal overprotection mitigates child anxiety requires further investigation