A systematic review exploring variables related to bystander intervention in sexual violence contexts

This article presents a systematic review of the available literature which has investigated the role of key variables in facilitating or inhibiting bystander intervention (including direct intervention, tertiary and secondary prevention) in sexual violence (SV) contexts. Studies exploring the role of individual, situational and contextual variables were grouped to provide a narrative overview of bystanders’ personal characteristics as well as the immediate and wider contexts which may be influencing their bystander behaviour. A systematic search of published literature from four electronic databases identified 2526 articles that were screened, of which 85 studies met the inclusion criteria. Most studies focused upon the role of individual variables, in particular gender of bystander. This body of work finds females are more likely to intervene than males; however, not all studies report these differences and in some cases, this is influenced by the type of intervention behaviour being considered. Regarding situational variables, the most commonly researched variable was the presence of other bystanders, although the role of this variable as inhibiting or facilitating was not clear. Finally, the most commonly researched contextual variable was social norms towards intervention, which has consistently shown greater bystander intervention when there is a belief that peers support such behaviour. Very few studies considered the interaction between these variables. Therefore, it is important for future research to consider this gap in the literature so that we can obtain a more well-rounded understanding of variables that can inhibit and facilitate bystander intervention in SV contexts

Facilitators and barriers of bystander intervention: A focus group study with a university sample

Image-based sexual abuse (IBSA) encompasses the taking, sharing, and/or threatening to share nude or sexual images of others without their consent. The prevalence of IBSA is growing rapidly due to technological advancements, such as access to smartphones, that have made engagement in such activities easier. Bystanders offer an important means of intervention, but little is known about what facilitates or inhibits bystander action in these contexts. To address this gap in the literature, seven focus groups (n = 35) were conducted to explore the factors that facilitate and inhibit bystander action in the context of three different IBSA scenarios (taking, sharing, and making threats to share nude or sexual images without consent). Using thematic analysis, eight themes were identified, suggesting that the perceived likelihood of intervention increased with greater feelings of responsibility, empathy with the victim, reduced feelings of audience inhibition, greater feelings of safety, greater anger toward the IBSA behavior, closer relationships with the victim and perpetrator, the incident involving a female victim and male perpetrator, and perception of greater benefits of police involvement. These findings are considered alongside the physical sexual violence literature in highlighting the similarities and nuances across the different contexts. Implications for the development of policies and educational materials are discussed in relation to encouraging greater bystander intervention in IBSA contexts

Facilitators and barriers of bystander intervention intent in image-based sexual abuse contexts: a focus group study with a university sample

Image-based sexual abuse (IBSA) encompasses the taking, sharing, and/or threatening to share nude or sexual images of others without their consent. The prevalence of IBSA is growing rapidly due to technological advancements, such as access to smartphones, that have made engagement in such activities easier. Bystanders offer an important means of intervention, but little is known about what facilitates or inhibits bystander action in these contexts. To address this gap in the literature, seven focus groups (n = 35) were conducted to explore the factors that facilitate and inhibit bystander action in the context of three different IBSA scenarios (taking, sharing, and making threats to share nude or sexual images without consent). Using thematic analysis, eight themes were identified, suggesting that the perceived likelihood of intervention increased with greater feelings of responsibility, empathy with the victim, reduced feelings of audience inhibition, greater feelings of safety, greater anger towards the IBSA behaviour, closer relationships with the victim and perpetrator, the incident involving a female victim and male perpetrator, and perception of greater benefits of police involvement. These findings are considered alongside the physical sexual violence literature in highlighting the similarities and nuances across the different contexts. Implications for the development of policies and educational materials are discussed in relation to encouraging greater bystander intervention in IBSA contexts

An investigation into the role of individual, situational, and contextual facilitators and barriers of bystander intervention intent in image-based sexual abuse contexts

Image-based sexual abuse (IBSA) encompasses the taking, sharing, and making threats to share nude or sexual images of others, without consent. IBSA is an ever-growing problem within our society, and victims of IBSA can experience harms to both physical and mental wellbeing. Current avenues for prevention of this behaviour focus mainly on the use of law and education, both of which have limitations. An additional avenue for prevention is bystander intervention. Research to date shows that many individuals have been a bystander to IBSA, but most do not intervene despite having the opportunity to do so. Therefore, gaining an understanding of what facilitates and inhibits intervention in these contexts is a worthy endeavour. This thesis examines what individual, situational, and contextual factors facilitate and inhibit bystander intervention intent in IBSA contexts. Using a mixed methods approach and an ecological framework to guide this research, a range of facilitators and barriers were identified. In line with past research in sexual violence (SV) contexts, key facilitators of intervention include feelings of responsibility, confidence to intervene, being friends with the victim, greater victim empathy, and more positive social norms towards intervention. Further, key barriers of intervention include fears for safety and audience inhibition. This thesis also identified facilitators and barriers not previously found in SV contexts, as well as those which are unique to IBSA, such as the inhibitive role of self-taken images (i.e., selfies) upon intended bystander intervention. The facilitators and barriers of intervention identified within this thesis have important implications for theory, practice, and future research. In particular, these findings contribute to a growing knowledge base that can be used to develop theory and educational programmes aimed at encouraging greater bystander intervention, which ultimately, will help prevent and minimise the harm experienced by victims of IBSA

Behavioral intentions of bystanders to image-based sexual abuse: a preliminary focus group study with a University student sample

Image-based sexual abuse (IBSA) represents a form of technology-facilitated sexual abuse that encompasses the taking, creating, and/or sharing (including threats to share) of nude or sexual images without consent. Unlike physical sexual violence contexts, little is known regarding if and how bystanders intervene in IBSA contexts. The current preliminary study aimed to address this gap in the literature. Specifically, seven focus groups with a sample of 35 university students (31 females, 4 males) were conducted to explore how they think they would behave (i.e., their behavioral intentions) if they were bystanders to three different IBSA scenarios: non-consensual taking, non-consensual sharing, and threatening to share nude or sexual images. Transcripts were analyzed using thematic analysis and the following themes were identified: perpetrator-centered action, victim-centered action, justice-centered action, and intervention as a well-informed and controlled process. Participants discussed how they would intervene by approaching the perpetrator, either in a confrontational or non-confrontational way, or approach the victim to inform them of what was happening, provide advice, or to support them. They also discussed involving the police. However, some group members were against these forms of intervention, particularly approaching the perpetrator and involving the police. Finally, many participants indicated that their actions need to be well-informed. These findings highlight a wide range of bystander actions in IBSA contexts that have implications for the development of policies, educational materials, and measures of bystander intervention behavior in future research

Behavioral Intentions of Bystanders to Image-Based Sexual Abuse: A Preliminary Focus Group Study with a University Student Sample

Image-based sexual abuse (IBSA) represents a form of technology-facilitated sexual abuse that encompasses the taking, creating, and/or sharing (including threats to share) of nude or sexual images without consent. Unlike physical sexual violence contexts, little is known regarding if and how bystanders intervene in IBSA contexts. The current preliminary study aimed to address this gap in the literature. Specifically, seven focus groups with a sample of 35 university students (31 females, 4 males) were conducted to explore how they think they would behave (i.e., their behavioral intentions) if they were bystanders to three different IBSA scenarios: non-consensual taking, non-consensual sharing, and threatening to share nude or sexual images. Transcripts were analyzed using thematic analysis and the following themes were identified: perpetrator-centered action, victim-centered action, justice-centered action, and intervention as a well-informed and controlled process. Participants discussed how they would intervene by approaching the perpetrator, either in a confrontational or non-confrontational way, or approach the victim to inform them of what was happening, provide advice, or to support them. They also discussed involving the police. However, some group members were against these forms of intervention, particularly approaching the perpetrator and involving the police. Finally, many participants indicated that their actions need to be well-informed. These findings highlight a wide range of bystander actions in IBSA contexts that have implications for the development of policies, educational materials, and measures of bystander intervention behavior in future research