Phylogenetic analysis of the evolution of lactose digestion in adults

In most of the world's population the ability to digest lactose declines sharply after infancy, High lactose digestion capacity in adults is common only in populations of European and circum-Mediterranean origin and is thought to be an evolutionary adaptation to millennia of drinking milk from domestic livestock, Milk can also be consumed in a processed form, such as cheese or soured milk, which has a reduced lactose content, Two other selective pressures for drinking fresh milk with a high lactose content have been proposed: promotion of calcium uptake in high-latitude populations prone to vitamin-D deficiency and maintainance of water and electrolytes in the body in highly arid environments, These three hypotheses are all supported by the geographic distribution of high lactose digestion capacity in adults. However, the relationships between environmental variables and adult lactose digestion capacity are highly confounded by the shared ancestry of many populations whose lactose digestion capacity has been tested, The three hypotheses for the evolution of high adult lactose digestion capacity are tested here using a comparative method of analysis that takes the problem of phylogenetic confounding into account, This analysis supports the hypothesis that high adult lactose digestion capacity is an adaptation to dairying but does not support the hypotheses that lactose digestion capacity is additionally selected for either at high latitudes or in highly arid environments. Furthermore, methods using maximum likelihood are used to show that the evolution of milking preceded the evolution of high lactose digestion

From bridewealth to dowry? A Bayesian estimation of ancestral states of marriage transfers in Indo-European groups

Significant amounts of wealth have been exchanged as part of marriage settlements throughout history. Although various models have been proposed for interpreting these practices, their development over time has not been investigated systematically. In this paper we use a Bayesian MCMC phylogenetic comparative approach to reconstruct the evolution of two forms of wealth transfers at marriage, dowry and bridewealth, for 51 Indo-European cultural groups. Results indicate that dowry is more likely to have been the ancestral practice, and that a minimum of four changes to bridewealth is necessary to explain the observed distribution of the two states across the cultural groups

TRIPS, eBay, and Denials of Injunctive Relief: Is Article 31 Compliance Everything?

In eBay, Inc. v. MercExchange, L.L.C., the Supreme Court held that decisions to grant injunctive relief must accord with the traditional principles of equity, thereby invalidating the practice of generally granting permanent injunctions to patentees upon finding infringement. Under eBay, denials of permanent injunctive relief might become more common, as courts instead opt to award an ongoing royalty. Because TRIPS contains provisions—primarily Article 31—that specify the conditions under which compulsory licenses for patents may be granted, an increase in denials of injunctive relief in favor of an ongoing royalty (creating, in essence, a compulsory license) in the U.S. requires review as to whether the U.S. is out of compliance with these provisions. This Note 1) examines the primary provisions relating to compulsory licensing in TRIPS; 2) studies differences of opinion regarding the nature of compulsory licenses and which understanding is appropriate for TRIPS based on a review of the Agreement's text and drafting history, historical practices, and policy; 3) examines eBay and subsequent cases denying permanent injunctive relief; 4) analyzes where eBay and TRIPS may conflict and attempts to resolve the differences; and 5) suggests strategies that U.S. courts might adopt to be TRIPS compliant with respect to compulsory licensing. This Note concludes that the U.S. faces a dilemma irrespective of Article 31's ultimate interpretation: if eBay is TRIPS compliant, developing countries can cite the case as precedent for implementing their own compulsory licensing systems with their own notions of equity and the public interest; if eBay is not TRIPS compliant, the U.S. may be brought before the TRIPS Dispute Settlement Body, the result of which would be a loosening of TRIPS compulsory licensing requirements or a re-tightening of the U.S. patent law injunctive relief. Absent a Dispute Settlement Body panel report interpreting Article 31, the WTO should issue a ministerial declaration to clarify the meaning and scope of Article 31 as it did for public health in the Doha Declaration

Effects of local extrinsic mortality rate, crime and sex ratio on preventable death in Northern Ireland

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Individual investment in health varies greatly within populations and results in significant differences in the risk of preventable death. Life history theory predicts that individuals should alter their investment in health (somatic maintenance) in response to ecological cues that shift the perceived fitness payoffs to such investments. However, previous research has failed to isolate the effects of different ecological factors on preventable death, and has often relied on macro-level data without individual controls. Here, we test some key predictions concerning the local ecology-that higher extrinsic mortality rate (EMR), crime rate and mate-scarcity (male/female-biased sex ratio) at the ward-level-will be associated with a higher risk of preventable death. METHODOLOGY: We use census-based data from Northern Ireland (n = 927 150) on preventable death during an 8.7-year period from the 2001 Census and run Cox regressions for (i) accident/suicide or alcohol-related death and (ii) deaths from preventable diseases, for men and women separately, controlling for a wide range of individual variables. RESULTS: We find evidence of ward-level EMR and crime rate being positively associated with preventable death among men, particularly men with low socioeconomic position. There was a tentative relationship between male-biased sex ratio and preventable death among women, but not among men. CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS: Both behaviours that might lead to 'risky' death and health neglect might be adaptive responses to local ecologies. Efforts to reduce crime might be as effective as those to reduce extrinsic mortality, and both could have positive effects on various health behaviours

Parental investment in child health in sub-Saharan Africa: a cross-national study of health-seeking behaviour

Parents face trade-offs between investing in child health and other fitness enhancing activities. In humans, parental investment theory has mostly been examined through the analysis of differential child outcomes, with less emphasis on the actions parents take to further a particular offspring's condition. Here, we make use of household data on health-seeking for children in a high mortality context where such behaviours are crucial for offspring survival. Using Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) data from 17 sub-Saharan African countries, we examine whether maternal factors (age, health, marital status) and child factors (birth order, health, sex, age) independently influence parental investment in health-seeking behaviours: two preventative behaviours (malaria net use and immunization) and two curative ones (treating fever and diarrhoea). Results indicate that children with lower birth order, older mothers and mothers with better health status have higher odds of investment. The effects of a child's sex and health status and whether the mother is polygynously married vary depending on the type of health-seeking behaviour (preventative versus curative). We discuss how these results square with predictions from parental investment theory pertaining to the state of mothers and children, and reflect on some potential mechanisms and directions for future research

Parental investment in child health in sub-Saharan Africa: a cross-national study of health-seeking behaviour

Parents face trade-offs between investing in child health and other fitness enhancing activities. In humans, parental investment theory has mostly been examined through the analysis of differential child outcomes, with less emphasis on the actions parents take to further a particular offspring's condition. Here, we make use of household data on health-seeking for children in a high mortality context where such behaviours are crucial for offspring survival. Using Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) data from 17 sub-Saharan African countries, we examine whether maternal factors (age, health, marital status) and child factors (birth order, health, sex, age) independently influence parental investment in health-seeking behaviours: two preventative behaviours (malaria net use and immunization) and two curative ones (treating fever and diarrhoea). Results indicate that children with lower birth order, older mothers and mothers with better health status have higher odds of investment. The effects of a child's sex and health status and whether the mother is polygynously married vary depending on the type of health-seeking behaviour (preventative versus curative). We discuss how these results square with predictions from parental investment theory pertaining to the state of mothers and children, and reflect on some potential mechanisms and directions for future research

<i>Aloe erensii, Aloe jucunda</i> and a new cultivar

Aloe erensii and A. jucunda are briefly described both in cultivation and in habitat. Their conservation status records based on IUCN criteria are emphasised since both species are endangered or critically endangered in the wild. An attractive hybrid between these two species has been in cultivation for a significant time and is here formally named Aloe 'Erensjuc'