5 research outputs found
Characteristic of the endogenous enkephalin degrading enzymes inhibitors
Management of acute and chronic pain has always been a key area of clinical
research. Pain and stress stimulation may cause an increase in the level of endogenous
opioids in the body. Endogenous enkephalins activate opioid receptors in the
brain, leading to the analgesic effect. Enkephalinases inactivate endogenous opioids,
abolishing their activity. Enkephalin degrading enzyme inhibitors (EIs) in turn
inhibit these enzymes, preventing them from degrading endogenous enkephalins
what leads to analgesia. The enkephalin degrading enzyme inhibitors seem to be
promising analgesic agents [2]. Analgesic effect of EIs has been discovered recently
and their therapeutic potential has not been effectively investigated yet. The main
advantage of enkephalinase inhibitors is that they do not show adverse effects characteristic
for opioids. EIs play an important role in modulating nociception, so they
are potential agents for the treatment of acute and chronic pain. They often possess
also additional antidiarrheal, antidepressant and anticancer properties [3]. The
potential EIs targets appear to be aminopeptidase N (APN), dipeptidyl peptidase III
(DPP III), angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) and neutral endopeptidase (NEP)
[4].
EIs may be broadly classified as endogenous and those that are obtained
synthetically
[4]. The purpose of this work is to present a review of endogenous enkephalinase
inhibitors: sialorphin, opiorphin, and spinorphin.
Sialorphin (Gln-His-Asn-Pro-Arg) is synthesized predominantly in the submandibular
gland and prostate of adult rats in response to androgen steroids and
is released locally and systemically in response to stress. Sialorphin protects endogenous
enkephalins released after nociceptive stimuli by inhibiting NEP in vivo.
Sialorphin prevents spinal and renal NEP from breaking down substance P and
Met-enkephalin in vitro. Sialorphin suppressed pain sensation for both chemical-
-induced inflammation and acute physical pain [8, 9, 12].
Opiorphin (Gln-Arg-Phe-Ser-Arg) is an endogenous chemical compound first
isolated from human saliva. Opiorphin is a natural analgesic. Opiorphin protects
enkephalins from degradation by human neutral endopeptidase and aminopeptidase
N. Opiorphin is closely related to the rat sialorphin peptide [12, 13, 19].
Spinorphin (Leu-Val-Val-Tyr-Pro-Trp-Thr) has been isolated from the bovine
spinal cord as an endogenous inhibitor of enkephalin - degrading enzymes. Spinorphin
is an antagonist of the P2X3 receptor and a weak partial agonist/antagonist of
the FP1 receptor [24, 25, 26]
Methods used to vizualize latent fingerprints
Dactyloscopy as one of the branches of forensic science deals with fingerprints
identification of the individual human being. Fingerprints are in general invisible,
therefore in order to set about the identification, we have to make them evident. To
reveal hidden fingerprints, criminological technology uses physical methods, chemical
reactions and even some biological processes. In this review, we present a set of
methods that is being used in criminology to reveal fingerprints and other hidden
traces.
In search for potential fingerprints, objects are exposed to natural and artificial
light sources since visual methods are most commonly used by criminology technicians.
Further methods for revealing fingerprints are selected on the basis of type of
surface, the trace was left on, and the substance forming the fingerprint. In his article
we present the set of methods, commonly used to reveal fingerprints, featuring physical,
chemical and physicochemical approaches [6].
Chemical methods: DFO, 1,2-IND and Ninhydin used for revealing fingerprints
on absorptive surfaces, Amido Black, Hungarian Red, DAB and LCV used for detecting
bloody fingerprints, DMAC used for revealing fingerprints on temperature-felt
papers, RTX dioxide of ruthenium used to absorptive and nonabsorptive surfaces
[9, 11, 14, 19, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30].
Next, we present physical methods among others optical methods which are
helpful in revealing fingerprints for the naked eye and (if needed) enlarging optical
devices. To achieve acceptable visibility, criminologists use various kinds of lamps and
filters. Subsequently we present methods based on adhesion, that are based on adjoining
the powder or suspension to sudoral-fatty substance. We present here methods
based on the use of dactyloscopic powders, crystal violet which is appearing in the
form of dark-green powder , SPR (Small Particle Reagent) – suspension of black MoS2
powder, Sticky-side Powder which composition is accessing iron oxide and aluminum,
Wet Powder Black, composed of iron oxide and Wet Powder White (titanium
dioxide). Tape-Glo (ready-made red-orange solution), Sudan Black B (in the solid
state it is a powder of the black colour), Liquid-drox (yellow solution), fluorescent
dyes: Ardrox P133D, Safranin O, chelate of europium and Basic Yellow 40 [31, 34–38].
The other methods are physicochemical methods: cyanoacrylate, iodine, physical
developer and multi metal deposition [42, 45, 46].
As a result of technological development newer methods of visualizing latent
fingerprints appear, replacing those previously used. Improvement of the methods
of revealing latent fingerprints leads to better readability and in effect, makes police
work easier
Cell-penetrating peptides : types and mechanisms of penetration
Before discovery of the Tat peptide over twenty years ago, it was assumed that
large peptides and proteins do not penetrate cell membranes. After discovery of Tat,
Penetratin [1, 2] and several other peptides of natural origin, able to cross the cell
membranes in an energy-independent manner, the structural determinants of their
cell-penetrating potency were established, including polycationic character, amphipaticity
and presence of proline-rich motifs [3, 4].
Currently known cell-penetrating peptides of natural or synthetic origin are
composed of 5 to 40 amino acid residues and belong to one of the three families:
oligocationic, amphipatic or proline-rich and penetrate the biological membranes
by endocytosis or other ways of direct translocation. Most of these translocation
mechanisms are not exclusive and may occur simultaneously, and their contribution
may be different for each peptide depending on the conditions (e.g. CPP concentration,
pH, etc.).
Most CPPs demonstrate little or no mammalian cell toxicity what makes them
promising vectors for drug delivery. Such vectors might be useful for efficient internalization
of compounds otherways poorly penetrating biological membranes.
Novel CPP-effector conjugates may become effective anticancer or antimicrobial
agents of a great potential for chemotherapy [3, 5].
In this short review we present a glimpse at the current state of knowledge concerning
sub‑families, types and mechanisms of action of most prominent members
of CPP family