The evolving SARS-CoV-2 epidemic in Africa: Insights from rapidly expanding genomic surveillance

INTRODUCTION Investment in Africa over the past year with regard to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) sequencing has led to a massive increase in the number of sequences, which, to date, exceeds 100,000 sequences generated to track the pandemic on the continent. These sequences have profoundly affected how public health officials in Africa have navigated the COVID-19 pandemic. RATIONALE We demonstrate how the first 100,000 SARS-CoV-2 sequences from Africa have helped monitor the epidemic on the continent, how genomic surveillance expanded over the course of the pandemic, and how we adapted our sequencing methods to deal with an evolving virus. Finally, we also examine how viral lineages have spread across the continent in a phylogeographic framework to gain insights into the underlying temporal and spatial transmission dynamics for several variants of concern (VOCs). RESULTS Our results indicate that the number of countries in Africa that can sequence the virus within their own borders is growing and that this is coupled with a shorter turnaround time from the time of sampling to sequence submission. Ongoing evolution necessitated the continual updating of primer sets, and, as a result, eight primer sets were designed in tandem with viral evolution and used to ensure effective sequencing of the virus. The pandemic unfolded through multiple waves of infection that were each driven by distinct genetic lineages, with B.1-like ancestral strains associated with the first pandemic wave of infections in 2020. Successive waves on the continent were fueled by different VOCs, with Alpha and Beta cocirculating in distinct spatial patterns during the second wave and Delta and Omicron affecting the whole continent during the third and fourth waves, respectively. Phylogeographic reconstruction points toward distinct differences in viral importation and exportation patterns associated with the Alpha, Beta, Delta, and Omicron variants and subvariants, when considering both Africa versus the rest of the world and viral dissemination within the continent. Our epidemiological and phylogenetic inferences therefore underscore the heterogeneous nature of the pandemic on the continent and highlight key insights and challenges, for instance, recognizing the limitations of low testing proportions. We also highlight the early warning capacity that genomic surveillance in Africa has had for the rest of the world with the detection of new lineages and variants, the most recent being the characterization of various Omicron subvariants. CONCLUSION Sustained investment for diagnostics and genomic surveillance in Africa is needed as the virus continues to evolve. This is important not only to help combat SARS-CoV-2 on the continent but also because it can be used as a platform to help address the many emerging and reemerging infectious disease threats in Africa. In particular, capacity building for local sequencing within countries or within the continent should be prioritized because this is generally associated with shorter turnaround times, providing the most benefit to local public health authorities tasked with pandemic response and mitigation and allowing for the fastest reaction to localized outbreaks. These investments are crucial for pandemic preparedness and response and will serve the health of the continent well into the 21st century

Chapter 1. Introduction

A total of 15 TDs were included as part of HFM-170. These TDs are listed in Figure 1-3, along with the Host country. TDs focused on many critical issues including multi-vehicle control, manned-unmanned teaming, human-automation interaction, telepresence interfaces, delegation interfaces, vehicle hand-offs, operator workload adaptive systems, variable levels of autonomy, authority sharing, situation awareness aids, cognitive workload assessment, swarming interface technology, and dynamic mission management

Chapter 18. Conclusions

This underlying report describes how HFM-170 successfully developed and demonstrated pertinent supervisory control human-system interface design practices and operator interface concepts for Uninhabited Vehicles (UVs) network-centric operations. In a series of 14 specific Technology Demonstrations (TDs) it was shown that the operator’s role is becoming more supervisory of nature since future UVs will be increasingly automated (e.g., autonomous capabilities, multiple systems, systems of systems), on the other hand it was demonstrated that new sensor and control technologies enable operators to be closer in the loop in a telepresence situation. The applications addressed varied in degree of autonomy from manual robotic control to highly autonomous, swarming UVs. A variety of critical issues were addressed including multi-vehicle control, manned-unmanned teaming, human-automation interaction, telepresence interfaces, delegation interfaces, vehicle hand-offs, operator workload adaptive systems, variable levels of autonomy, authority sharing, situation awareness aids, cognitive workload assessment, swarming interfaces, and dynamic mission management. HFM-170 also concentrated on the identification and demonstration of successful supervisory control methodologies and interface design practices for enabling single operator control of multiple UVs