Economic Valuation of Health Care Services in Public Health Systems: A Study about Willingness to Pay (WTP) for Nursing Consultations

Background: Identifying the economic value assigned by users to a particular health service is of principal interest in planning the service. The aim of this study was to evaluate the perception of economic value of nursing consultation in primary care (PC) by its users. Methods and Results: Economic study using contingent valuation methodology. A total of 662 users of nursing consultation from 23 health centers were included. Data on demographic and socioeconomic characteristics, health needs, pattern of usage, and satisfaction with provided service were compiled. The validity of the response was evaluated by an explanatory mixed-effects multilevel model in order to assess the factors associated with the response according to the welfare theory. Response reliability was also evaluated. Subjects included in the study indicated an average Willingness to Pay (WTP) of €14.4 (CI 95%: €13.2–15.5; median €10) and an average Willingness to Accept [Compensation] (WTA) of €20.9 (CI 95%: €19.6–22.2; median €20). Average area income, personal income, consultation duration, home visit, and education level correlated with greater WTP. Women and older subjects showed lower WTP. Fixed parameters explained 8.41% of the residual variability, and response clustering in different health centers explained 4–6% of the total variability. The influence of income on WTP was different in each center. The responses for WTP and WTA in a subgroup of subjects were consistent when reassessed after 2 weeks (intraclass correlation coefficients 0.952 and 0.893, respectively). Conclusions: The economic value of nursing services provided within PC in a public health system is clearly perceived by its user. The perception of this value is influenced by socioeconomic and demographic characteristics of the subjects and their environment, and by the unique characteristics of the evaluated service. The method of contingent valuation is useful for making explicit this perception of value of health services

Depression: Ein nach wie vor unterschätztes Risiko für die Entwicklung und Progression der koronaren Herzerkrankung.

Die Bedeutung der Depression als Risikofaktor bei der Entstehung und Progression der koronaren Herzerkrankung (KHK) und mögliche Pathomechanismen sind Gegenstand der vorliegenden Arbeit. Zur Abschätzung der Vorhersage kardiovaskulärer Ereignisse liegen vier Metaanalysen mit ≥100.000 eingeschlossenen Probanden aus Bevölkerungsstudien mit einem adjustierten relativen Risiko von 1.60–1.90 vor. Neben verhaltenswirksamen Effekten (Ernährung, Bewegung, Rauchen, mangelnde Medikamententreue) werden drei zentrale psychobiologische Pathomechanismen diskutiert. Hierzu zählt erstens eine Hyperregulation des autonomen Nervensystems mit erhöhter Herzfrequenzrate, überschießenden Herzfrequenzanstiegen und einer erniedrigten Herzfrequenzvariabilität. Zweitens: überschießende Stressantworten des endokrinen Systems (insbesondere der Hypophysen-Nebennieren-Achse (HPA-Achse) und drittens eine dauerhafte subklinische Erhöhung von Inflammationsparametern (Akute-Phase-Proteine; proinflammatorische Zytokine) mit Veränderungen des Gerinnungssystems (unter anderem durch Thrombozytenaktivierung). Eine anhaltende depressive Symptomatik erhöht auch das Risiko für die Entwicklung der endothelialen Dysfunktion, einer Vorstufe der Atherosklerose. Schließlich spielen gefährliche Nebenwirkungen von Antidepressiva eine Rolle

Prospective association between self-reported life satisfaction and mortality: Results from the MONICA/KORA Augsburg S3 survey cohort study.

Background: To identify factors which determine high life satisfaction (LS) and to analyse the prognostic influence of LS on mortality. Methods: Data collection was conducted on 2,675 participants, age 25-74 years, as part of the MONICA Augsburg Project 1994-95. Multivariate logistic regression analyses were used to determine factors associated with high LS (measured with one item, 6-level Likert scale, where "high" = very satisfied/most of the time very satisfied with ones personal life). After 12 years mean follow-up, a total of 245 deaths occurred. We calculated age-and sex-adjusted incident mortality rates per 10,000. Hazard ratios (HRs) were estimated from Cox proportional hazards models. Results: Independent determinants of LS were income, health-perception, and social support, as well as somatisation, anger or depressive symptoms (all p < 0.05). Participants with higher LS (n = 721, 27%) benefited the most with respect to absolute mortality risk reduction (higher LS = 67; mid = 98; low = 140 per 10,000). The sex-stratified analyses indicated an independent association of higher LS and survival for men (HR 0.55; 95% CI 0.37 - 0.81) but not for women.Conclusions: Baseline assessment demonstrated that psychological, social and life-style factors, but not somatic co-morbidities, were relevant determinants of LS. Moreover, the analysis showed that men with higher LS have a substantial long-term survival benefit. The observed association between LS and mortality may be attributed to common underlying causes such as social network integration and/or self-rated health

Diagnostic utility of a one-item question to screen for depressive disorders: Results from the MONICA/KORA F3 study.

BACKGROUND: Screening for depressive disorders in the general adult population is recommended, however, it is unclear which instruments combine user friendliness and diagnostic utility. We evaluated the test performance of a yes/no single item screener for depressive disorders ("Have you felt depressed or sad much of the time in the past year?") in comparison to the depressive disorder module of the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9). METHODS: Data from 3184 participants of the population-based KORA F3 survey in Augsburg/ Germany were used to analyse sensitivity, specificity, ROC area, positive likelihood ratio (LR+), negative likelihood ratio (LR-), positive predictive value (PPV), and negative predictive value (NPV) of the single item screener in comparison with "depressive mood" and "major depressive disorder" defined according to PHQ-9 (both interviewer-administered versions). RESULTS: In comparison to PHQ-9 "depressive mood", sensitivity was low (46%) with an excellent specificity (94%), (PPV 76%; NPV 82%; LR + 8.04; LR- .572, ROC area .702). When using the more conservative definition for "major depressive disorder", sensitivity increased to 83% with a specificity of 88%. The PPV under the conservative definition was low (32%), but NPV was 99% (LR + 6.65; LR- .196; ROC area .852). Results varied across age groups and between males and females. CONCLUSIONS: The single item screener is able to moderately decrease post-test probability of major depressive disorders and to identify populations that should undergo additional, more detailed evaluation for depression. It may have limited utility in combination with additional screening tests or for selection of at-risk populations, but cannot be recommended for routine use as a screening tool in clinical practice. &nbsp

Aging without depression: A cross-sectional study.

Abstract Objectives: The aim of the study was to analyze the association between secure attachment style, loneliness, and social network as risk factors for late-life depression. Methods: This cross-sectional study examined 969 subjects of the KORA-Age study. We applied the Relationship-Specific Attachment Scales for Adults (Beziehungsspezifische Bindungsskalen für Erwachsene, BBE), the UCLA Loneliness Scale, and the Social Network Index (SNI). Depression was operationalized through the Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS-15) and/or use of antidepressants. Logistic-regression models were calculated, sex-stratified, and controlled for age and living status. Results: For men, lower depression scores were associated with higher attachment security scores (OR = 0.26, 95% CI = 0.15-0.44) and not reporting feelings of loneliness (OR = 0.27, 95% CI = 0.14-0.53). For women, independent determinants of not having late life depression consist of not feeling lonely (OR = 0.22, 95% CI = 0.13-0.38). Discussion: Loneliness is a risk factor for late life depression in women and men, attachment style is a risk factor more for men, while social network size is not a risk factor

Adipositas und Depressions- und Angstsymptome -bei prä- und post-menopausalen Frauen: Ein Vergleich verschiedener Adipositasmaße.

This study examines differences in the rates of depression and anxiety symptoms in overweight vs. normal weight women before and after the menopause. In a population sample of 1 416 participants of the KORA-Survey F3 2004-2005 (age 35-74 years), body mass index (BMI), waist circumference (WC), waist-to-hip-ratio (WHR) und waist-to-height-ratio (WHtR) were measured via physical examination. Depression and anxiety were assessed with the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale. Compared with normal weight, obesity was associated with depression in premenopausal women. This held for elevated BMI-, WC- and WHtR-scores (OR=3.7, 4.2, and 2.8), underlining the relevance of both general and abdominal obesity. Menopausal status may be a moderator for the association of obesity and depression, which - given the interaction between these 2 risk factors - may be of preven-tive importance in regard to the development of cardiovascular outcomes such as coronary heart disease

Lifetime traumatic experiences and their impact on PTSD: A general population study.

OBJECTIVE: Exploring the relationship of exposure to a traumatic event and the subsequent onset of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in the population. METHODS: Posttraumatic stress disorder was assessed using the Impact of Event Scale (IES), Posttraumatic Diagnostic Scale (PDS) and interview data. Logistic regression analyses with sex, age, marital status, educational level and traumatic event characteristics were performed. Prevalences were standardised to the sex and age distribution of the German population. RESULTS: A total of 41 % of the subjects reported exposure to a trauma, leading to full PTSD in 1.7 % and to partial PTSD in 8.8 % of the participants. Logistic regression revealed accidents (OR 2.5, 95 % CI 1.3-4.7), nonsexual assault by known assailants (4.5, 2.1-9.8), combat/war experiences (5.9, 2.0-17.4), life-threatening illness (4.9, 2.7-8.9) and interpersonal conflicts (15.5, 2.5-96.0) as risk factors for full PTSD; risk factors for partial PTSD were accidents (3.2, 2.4-4.3), sexual (4.6, 2.2-9.6) or nonsexual (2.3, 1.4-3.8) assault by known assailants, life-threatening illness (6.2, 4.6-8.3), death of relatives (5.0, 3.2-7.8) and interpersonal conflicts (22.0, 8.3-58.1). CONCLUSIONS: Of subjects exposed to traumatic events, only a minority developed PTSD indicating a relationship between characteristics of the exposure and the individual and the onset of PTSD

Mind over hormones: Sex differences in associations of well-being with IGF-I, IGFBP-3 and physical activity in the KORA-Age study.

OBJECTIVES: This study examined associations between well-being and serum levels of insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-I) and its primary binding protein IGFBP-3 in a large population-based study of older adults. Additionally, the influence of physical activity on the effect of hormone levels on positive mental health was examined. METHODS: Cross-sectional data from 985 participants of the KORA-Age study (age range 64-93) was used in sex-specific multivariable regression analyses to assess associations between both IGF-I and IGFBP-3 with well-being (World Health Organization (WHO) -5) or ill-being (geriatric depression scale (GDS) -15). Models were increasingly adjusted for age, leisure time physical activity, sleep patterns, BMI, smoking, and cognitive scores based on causal diagrams. Well-being and depression scales were standardized to facilitate comparisons of growth hormone effects. Adjusted means of the WHO-5 score were assessed for the interaction between quintile levels of IGF-I or IGFBP-3 with high or low levels of physical activity. RESULTS: Fully adjusted models demonstrated that increased IGFBP-3 was positively associated with the WHO-5 in women (β estimate=0.14, standard error (SE)=0.06) and less so in men (β=0.11, SE=0.07). IGF-I was positively associated with the GDS-15 depression scale (β=0.11, SE=0.06) and negatively associated with well-being (β=-0.11, SE=0.06) in women and similar but not statistically discernable effects were observed in men. Adjusted mean WHO-5 scores illustrated the positive effect of both physical activity and higher IGFBP-3 on well-being in women only. CONCLUSIONS: These data demonstrate opposite and independent associations of IGF-I and IGFBP-3 on well-being in women, and suggest a neuroprotective effect of IGFBP-3 in older age

Hypertension and depressed symptomatology: A cluster related to the activation of the Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS). Findings from population based KORA F4 study.

CONTEXT: Preliminary evidence points to aldosterone being not only prominently involved in the systemic regulation of the blood pressure but also to play a role in the pathophysiology of depression. OBJECTIVE: We evaluated whether the combination of hypertension and depressed symptomatology is useful to screen for individuals suffering an activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS). DESIGN: We conducted a cross-sectional analysis in participants from the Cooperative Health Research in the Region of Augsburg (KORA) F4 Study conducted between 2006 and 2008 in Southern Germany. A total of 1805 participants of the F4 study were included in the study. METHODS: The association between aldosterone and renin levels and the different combinations of hypertension and depressed symptomatology was examined in four different models of multiple linear regression adjusted for age, sex, creatinine levels, potassium levels, body mass index (BMI) and behavioural risk factors. RESULTS: Individuals suffering both, depressed symptomatology and hypertension exhibited highly significantly increased aldosterone levels (p<0.001) and slightly, not significantly increased renin levels (p=0.08) compared to individuals with no depressed symptomatology and no hypertension. No significant activation of the RAAS was seen in only depressed or only hypertensive individuals. CONCLUSIONS: The finding of highly significantly increased aldosterone levels and increased renin levels in individuals suffering both, depressed symptomatology and hypertension provides further evidence for the involvement of the RAAS in the pathogenesis of depressed symptomatology. These findings have important implications for future research concerning the pathophysiological pathways that link depression and cardiovascular disease