Oxidative stress and pro-apoptotic conditions in a rodent model of Wilson's disease.

Wilson's disease (WD) is an inherited disorder, characterized by selective copper deposition in liver and brain, chronic hepatitis and extrapyramidal signs. In this study, we investigated changes of biochemical markers of oxidative stress and apoptosis in liver, striatum and cerebral cortex homogenates from Long-Evans Cinnamon (LEC) rats, a mutant strain isolated from Long Evans (LE) rats, in whom spontaneous hepatitis develops shortly after birth. LEC and control (LE) rats at I I and 14 weeks of age were used. We determined tissue levels of glutathione (GSH/GSSG ratio), lipid peroxides, protein-thiols (P-SH), nitric oxide metabolites, activities of caspase-3 and total superoxide-dismutase (SOD), striatal levels of monoamines and serum levels of hepatic amino-transferases. We observed a decrease of protein-thiols, GSH/GSSG ratio and nitrogen species associated to increased lipid peroxidation in the liver and striatum - but not in the cerebral cortex - of LEC rats, accompanied by dramatic increase in serum amino-transferases and decrease of striatal catecholamines. Conversely, SOD and caspase-3 activity increased consistently only in the cortex of LEC rats. Hence, we assume that enhanced oxidative stress may play a central role in the cell degeneration in WD, at the main sites of copper deposition, with discrete pro-apoptotic conditions developing in distal areas

Simvastatin Prevents Dopaminergic Neurodegeneration in Experimental Parkinsonian Models: The Association with Anti-Inflammatory Responses

Background: In addition to their original applications to lowering cholesterol, statins display multiple neuroprotective effects. N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors interact closely with the dopaminergic system and are strongly implicated in therapeutic paradigms of Parkinson’s disease (PD). This study aims to investigate how simvastatin impacts on experimental parkinsonian models via regulating NMDA receptors. Methodology/Principal Findings: Regional changes in NMDA receptors in the rat brain and anxiolytic-like activity were examined after unilateral medial forebrain bundle lesion by 6-hydroxydopamine via a 3-week administration of simvastatin. NMDA receptor alterations in the post-mortem rat brain were detected by [3H]MK-801(Dizocilpine) binding autoradiography. 6-hydroxydopamine treated PC12 was applied to investigate the neuroprotection of simvastatin, the association with NMDA receptors, and the anti-inflammation. 6-hydroxydopamine induced anxiety and the downregulation of NMDA receptors in the hippocampus, CA1(Cornu Ammonis 1 Area), amygdala and caudate putamen was observed in 6- OHDA(6-hydroxydopamine) lesioned rats whereas simvastatin significantly ameliorated the anxiety-like activity and restored the expression of NMDA receptors in examined brain regions. Significant positive correlations were identified between anxiolytic-like activity and the restoration of expression of NMDA receptors in the hippocampus, amygdala and CA1 following simvastatin administration. Simvastatin exerted neuroprotection in 6-hydroxydopamine-lesioned rat brain and 6- hydroxydopamine treated PC12, partially by regulating NMDA receptors, MMP9 (matrix metalloproteinase-9), and TNF-a (tumour necrosis factor-alpha). Conclusions/Significance: Our results provide strong evidence that NMDA receptor modulation after simvastatin treatment could partially explain its anxiolytic-like activity and anti-inflammatory mechanisms in experimental parkinsonian models. These findings contribute to a better understanding of the critical roles of simvastatin in treating PD via NMDA receptors

Dopamine receptor agonists for Parkinson's disease

Introduction: Prolonged administration of l-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (l-DOPA) for Parkinson's disease (PD) is hampered by motor complications related to the progressive incapacity of residual nigrostriatal neurons to properly utilize the drug. Direct stimulation of dopaminergic (DAergic) receptors with specific compounds (DA agonists) has, therefore, become an additional therapeutic tool for PD. Areas covered: DA agonists have considerable anti-parkinsonian symptomatic efficacy, although they are less potent than l-DOPA. This review summarizes pre-clinical and clinical data on DA agonists and their role in treating PD. Specific focus was put on second-generation, first-line non-ergolinic DA agonists and their motor, non-motor and putative neuroprotective effects. The anti-parkinsonian potential of recently developed DA agonists that reached Phase II and III clinical trials was also addressed. Expert opinion: DA agonists can be useful along the whole natural course of PD, as monotherapy in the initial phase or combined with l-DOPA in advanced PD. Extended-release formulations have been developed for second-generation DA agonists, which are better appreciated by patients. Neuroprotective properties have been proposed for DA agonists, based on pre-clinical studies, but never convincingly demonstrated in patients. New DA agonists, with better symptomatic efficacy and devoid of the side effects that characterize current compounds, are needed. © 2014 Informa UK, Ltd

Animal models of Parkinson's disease

Animal models of Parkinson's disease (PD) have been widely used in the past four decades to investigate the pathogenesis and pathophysiology of this neurodegenerative disorder. These models have been classically based on the systemic or local (intracerebral) administration of neutoxins that are able to replicate most of the pathological and phenotypic features of PD in mammals (i.e. rodents or primates). In the last decade, the advent of the 'genetic era' of PD has provided a phenomenal enrichment of the research possibilities in this field, with the development of various mammalian (mice and, more recently, rats) and non-mammalian transgenic models that replicate most of the disease-causing mutations identified for monogenic forms of familial PD. Both toxic and transgenic classes of animal PD models have their own specificities and limitations, which must be carefully taken into consideration when choosing the model to be used. If a substantial and reproducible nigrostriatal lesion is required (e.g. for testing therapeutic interventions aimed at counteracting PD-related cell death), a classic toxic model such as one based on the administration of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine or 6-hydroxydopamine will adequately serve the purpose. On the other hand, if selected molecular mechanisms of PD pathogenesis must be investigated, transgenic models will offer invaluable insights. Therefore, until the 'perfect' model is developed, indications to use one model or another will depend on the specific objectives that are being pursued. © 2012 FEBS

Peripheral-central neuroimmune crosstalk in parkinson’s disease: What do patients and animal models tell us?

The brain is no longer considered an immune privileged organ and neuroinflammation has long been associated with Parkinson’s disease. Accumulating evidence demonstrates that innate and adaptive responses take place in the CNS. The extent to which peripheral immune alterations impacts on the CNS, or vice and versa, is, however, still a matter of debate. Gaining a better knowledge of the molecular and cellular immune dysfunctions present in these two compartments and clarifying their mutual interactions is a fundamental step in understanding and preventing Parkinson’s disease (PD) pathogenesis. This review provides an overview of the current knowledge on inflammatory processes evidenced both in PD patients and in toxin-induced animal models of the disease. It discusses differences and similarities between human and animal studies in the context of neuroinflammation and immune responses and how they have guided therapeutic strategies to slow down diseaseprogression.Futurelongitudinal studies are necessary and can help gain a better understanding on peripheral-central nervous system crosstalk to improve therapeutic strategies for PD

Neuroprotective effects mediated by dopamine receptor agonists against malonate-induced lesion in the rat striatum

In rats, intrastriatal injection of malonate, a reversible inhibitor of the mitochondrial enzyme succinate dehydrogenase, induces a lesion similar to that observed following focal ischemia or in Huntington's disease. In this study we used the malonate model to explore the neuroprotective potential of dopamine agonists. Rats were injected intraperitoneally with increasing concentrations of D1, D2, or mixed D1/D2 dopamine agonists prior to intrastriatal injection of malonate. Administration of increasing doses of the D2-specific agonist quinpirole resulted in increased protection against malonate toxicity. Conversely, the D1-specific agonist SKF-38393, as well as the mixed D1/D2 agonist apomorphine, conferred higher neuroprotection at lower than at higher drug concentrations. Our data suggest that malonate-induced striatal toxicity can be attenuated by systemic administration of dopamine agonists, with D1 and D2 agonists showing different profiles of efficacy

Systemic administration of an mGluR5 antagonist, but not unilateral subthalamic lesion, counteracts l-DOPA-induced dyskinesias in a rodent model of Parkinson's disease

Altered glutamatergic neurotransmission is central to the expression of Parkinson's disease (PD) symptoms and may underlie l-DOPA-induced dyskinesias. Drugs acting on glutamate metabotropic receptors (mGluR) of group I can modulate subthalamic nucleus (STN) overactivity, which plays a pivotal role in these phenomena, and may counteract dyskinesias. To address these issues, we investigated the effects of a 3-week treatment with mGluR5 antagonist 2-methyl-6-(phenylethynyl)-pyridine (MPEP), or of a subthalamic lesion, on abnormal involuntary movements (AIMs) and associated striatal expression of transcription factor FosB/Delta FosB caused by chronic l-DOPA administration, in rats with a nigrostriatal lesion. MPEP virtually abolished AIMs and reduced, dramatically, striatal expression of FosB/Delta FosB. Reduced FosB/Delta FosB expression, coupled with nonsignificant reduction of AIMs, was also observed in STN-lesioned rats. Our data confirm the role of glutamatergic neurotransmission in the pathogenesis of dyskinesias and the potential of mGluR5 antagonists in the treatment of l-DOPA-induced dyskinesias. © 2007 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved

Prolonged blockade of NMDA or mGluR5 glutamate receptors reduces nigrostriatal degeneration while inducing selective metabolic changes in the basal ganglia circuitry in a rodent model of Parkinson's disease

We compared the neuroprotective and metabolic effects of chronic treatment with ionotropic or metabotropic glutamate receptor antagonists, in rats bearing a unilateral nigrostriatal lesion induced by 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA). The ionotropic, N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor antagonist MK-801 increased cell survival in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) and corrected the metabolic hyperactivity (increased cytochrome oxidase activity) of the ipsilateral substantia nigra pars reticulata (SNr) associated with the lesion, but showed no effects on the 6-OHDA-induced hyperactivity of the subthalamic nucleus (STN). Significant-although less pronounced-protection of SNc neurons was also observed following treatment with the metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluR5) antagonist 2-methyl-6-(phenylehtynyl)-pyridine (MPEP). As opposed to MK-801, MPEP abolished the STN metabolic hyperactivity associated with the nigrostriatal lesion, without affecting SNr activity. Specific modulation of STN hyperactivity obtained with mGluR5 blockade may, therefore, open interesting perspectives for the use of this class of compounds in the treatment of Parkinson's disease. © 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved