Assessing Handling of Complementary Foods towards Prevention of Iron Losses among Infants in Keiyo South Subcounty, Kenya

The use of concepts such as Hazard Analysis Critical Control (HACCP) system is still problematic at household level hence the hygienic status of complementary foods cannot be assumed. Unhygienic complementary foods at the commencement of feeding are a major cause of diarrhea. Gastrointestinal disorders that result in inflammation of the small intestine may result in diarrhea, poor absorption of dietary iron, and iron depletion. A cross sectional study design was adopted in this survey. Data was collected from both the swabs from the hands of 136 mothers were as well as from interview schedules. The data was collected at Biretwo, Cheptebo and Sego health facilities and the lab work at University of Eldoret. Solutions were made in 10ml of distilled water, selenite broth and 10 ml of tetrathionate broth. All samples were collected in sterile containers and then transported immediately in an ice chest to the laboratory for analysis. Ten milliliters of each sample was homogenized in 90 ml sterile diluent using a stomacher for 30s, at a preset speed. Tenfold serial dilution was made with the same diluent and 0.1ml aliquot of each appropriate dilutions was spread-plated while 1ml was poured-plated in duplicates on various media for enumeration of isolates. Tetrathinate, selenite, salmonella-shigella agar, mackonkey and blood agar was used to isolate various microorganisms incubated at 30oC for 48-72 hours. Phenotypic characterization was then conducted. Data was analyzed using Statistical Package for Social the Sciences (SPSS) computer software version 17, 2009. The results indicated that the highest number of mothers (76.4%) had their hands contaminated with Salmonella. None of the mothers had Clostridium, Listeria, Brucella or Campylobacter species. This was against the prevelance of iron deficiency anemia of 53.5% among infants aged six to nine months. Other bacterial species that were found were Staphylococcus, Streptococcus and Klebsiella spp. Hygienic handwashing was significant factor and also predicted iron deficiency anemia hygiene hand washing (t=-2.000; p=0.047). Hygiene programs that focus on proper ways of preparing and handling complementary foods that minimize risks of bacterial contamination should be taught to mothers. Keywords: Food, Handling, Complementary, Infant

Biological control of the common house fly (Musa domestica L.) using Bacillus thuringiensis (Ishiwata) berliner var. Israelensis and Beauveria bassiana (Bals.) vullemin in caged poultry facilities.

Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2008.The entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana and the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis var. israelensis (Bti) have been widely studied for their role in biocontrol against many arthropods and extensively exploited for insect pest control. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of four B. bassiana and two Bti formulations and their respective combinations, for the biological control of the common house fly, Musca domestica L., a major pest in poultry facilities. In vitro screening was undertaken to select the best B. bassiana isolates from 34 B. bassiana isolates and two Paecilomyces isolates. All the isolates of B. bassiana were found to be effective against adult house flies, but were marginally effective in controlling fly larvae. The Paecilomyces isolates were non-pathogenic towards both adult house flies and larvae. The best four isolates R444, 7320, 7569 and 7771 caused >90% mortality within 2d and were subjected to dose-mortality bioassays. Microscopic studies using light and scanning electron microscopy indicated the different durations of the lifecycle of B. bassiana development on the house fly. High temperature was found to delay conidial germination. Spore germination and mycelial growth were also inhibited by high adjuvant concentrations. Laboratory baseline bioassay data established, a dose-time response relationship using a waterdispersible granules (WDG) Bti formulation that demonstrated that the susceptibility of M. domestica larvae to a given concentration of Bti increased as the duration of exposure increased. In the laboratory studies, the LC50 and LC90 values of Bti for the larvae ranged between 65 - 77.4 and 185.1 - 225.9?g ml-1, respectively. LT50 and LT90 values were 5.5 and 10.3d respectively. In the field, a concentration of 10g Bti kg-1 (bran formulation) of feed resulted in 90% reduction of larvae for 4wk post-treatment. A higher concentration (2g L-1) of Bti in spray (WDG) applications was not significantly more effective than the lower concentration of 1g L-1. Thus, adding Bti to chicken feed has potential for the management and control of house flies in cagedpoultry facilities. The impact of oral feed applications of a bran formulation of Bti and a commercial chemical larvicide, Larvadex®, were compared with respect to their efficacy on the control of house fly 3 larval populations in poultry manure. The sublethal effects were manifested in terms of decreasing emergence of adult house flies. Although Larvadex® reduced larval density and caused significant reductions in emergence of adult house flies, it generally exhibited weaker lethal effects than Bti. The reduction levels achieved as a result of feeding 250mg Bti kg-1 at 5wk were similar to those achieved as a result of feeding twice the amount of Larvadex® at 4wk to the layers. From both an efficiency and economic perspective, comparisons to assess the impact of combining different concentrations of the two Bti formulations were carried out to evaluate their success in controlling house fly larvae and adults in poultry houses. The percentage mortality of larvae accomplished as a result of using a combination of 250mg kg-1 Bti in feed and 2g L-1 spray applications was equivalent to that obtained as a result of combining 500mg kg-1 Bti in feed and 1g L-1 spray application. The cost-benefit analysis (expressed in terms of mortality of larvae) indicated that the most effective combination for control of house fly larvae and fly emergence was the 500mg kg-1 in feed and 2g L-1 spray application combination that resulted in 67% larval mortality and 74% inhibition of adult house fly emergence. This study presents commercial users with possible combinations of applications of the two Bti formulations. Comparisons of larval mortalities and house fly emergence resulting from the Bti - B. bassiana treatments with those from Larvadex® - B. bassiana treatments, showed better control levels compared to any of the individual agents alone. The Bti treatments were more effective at controlling larval populations and inhibiting the emergence of house flies than Larvadex®, even when Larvadex® was applied together with B. bassiana. The effects of the Bti - B. bassiana and the Larvadex® - B. bassiana interactions were additive. These trials suggest that the efficacy of Bti in the control of house fly larvae may be improved with frequent applications of B. bassiana

Risk of Fungi Associated with Aflatoxin and Fumonisin in Medicinal Herbal Products in the Kenyan Market

Utilization of herbal products is a major concern due to the possibility of contamination by toxigenic fungi that are mycotoxin producers such as Aspergillus species during processing and packaging. Research was carried out to determine the presence of aflatoxins and fumonisins in herbal medicinal products sold in Eldoret and Mombasa towns in Kenya. The study employed both exploratory and laboratory experimental design. The herbal products were purchased from the market and transported to Kenya Medical Research Institute for processing and analysis. Fungal contaminants were determined according to Pharmacopoeia specifications. The toxins were quantified using ELISA based technique. The genus Aspergillus was the most dominant followed by Penicillium. Fungal counts ranged between 1 CFU/g and >1000 cfu/g. Analysis of variance showed that the rate of fungal contaminants for Eldoret and Mombasa samples had significant association (p≤0.001). Aflatoxin levels ranged from 1 to 24 ppb, while fumonisin levels ranged from 1 to >20 ppb. Only 31% of samples met the standards for microbial limits as specified in Pharmacopoeia. There is need for product microbial quality improvement through proper harvesting, processing, storage, and marketing. It is recommended that a policy be enacted to enable regulation of herbal products in Kenya

Use of Slow Sand Filtration Technique to Improve Wastewater Effluent for Crop Irrigation

Water scarcity has resulted to urban residence to resort to using untreated wastewater to irrigate their crops. This practice raises concerns on health of the farmers and consumers of the crops. The study aimed at determining whether the effluent from Boundary Sewage Treatment Plant was up to national and international standards recommended for irrigation, if not they were further subjected to slow sand filtration of different sand sizes (0.1 and 0.05 mm) to polish the effluent. Pour plate method was used to determine total coliforms (TC), Biological oxygen demand (BOD) technique for BOD, chemical oxygen demand (COD) digestion for COD, gravimetric method for total dissolved solids (TDS) and total suspended solids (TSS). One sample t-test during dry season showed that BOD, COD, TC and TSS in the effluent were significantly higher (P<0.05) than the standards for irrigation. During wet season BOD, COD, TDS and pH were significantly not higher (P>0.05) than the compared standards for the wastewater to be used for crop irrigation. The filters improved the effluent from the treatment plant to the standards for irrigation. The sequential treatment of the raw wastewater by the Boundary Sewage Treatment Plant and the slow sand filtration technique made the wastewater to achieve the standards it can be utilized for crop irrigation

Effects of Organic and Inorganic Fertilizer on the Population Dynamics of Soil Microorganisms in Tea Rhizosphere at Kericho, Kenya

Aim: The long-term cultivation of tea (Camellia sinensis L.) alters microorganism communities in the rhizosphere; it can increase saprotrophs, pathogenic microorganisms and reduce symbiotrophs. Fertilizers are sources of plant essential nutrients and can influence the activity and population of soil microorganisms. This study aimed to determine the effect of fertilization regimes on the population dynamics of soil microorganisms in the tea rhizosphere for its management. Place and Duration: The study was carried out at the Tea Research Institute, Kericho, Kenya during the dry (February-March) and wet season (June-July). Methodology: Two main fertilizer types; organic (Phymix) and inorganic (Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium- NPK) and foliar fertilizer (Tecamin Max, Tecnokel Amino Mix) as sub treatments application at the rate of 0, 75 and 150 kg N ha-1), were applied in four replications. Sampling of soil was done before treatment application, during the dry season (February-March) and the wet season (June-July). The fungal and bacterial populations for both seasons were characterized. The data collected was analyzed using SAS (version 9) Statistical Software. Results: The study showed that the fungal colony units varied significantly (P≤0.05) between the types of fertilizer both during dry and rainy season. The interactions of fertilizer type and rate also varied significantly (P≤0.05) for fungal populations during both seasons. No significant variation was noted for the bacterial population (cfu) for both seasons regardless of fertilizer type and rates. The fungi identified included; Cylindrocarpon spp., Trichoderma spp., Penicillium spp., Aspergillus spp. Colletotrichum spp., Pestalotiopsis spp., and Fusarium spp. The bacteria included; Pseudomonas spp., Bacillus spp., Rhizobium spp., and Xanthomonas spp. Conclusion: Organic fertilizer increased fungal populations significantly, an indication of enhanced soil health and may be recommended for use