Expenditure ceilings and fiscal policy – Swedish experiences

In the late 1990s the Swedish budget process and fiscal framework were thoroughly reformed, and in 2006 the new system had been in place for eight years. The aim of this paper is to describe this system, with an emphasis on expenditure ceilings, and to discuss the experiences gained so far. The paper is organized as follows: First the reforms of the budget process and the Swedish fiscal framework are presented. Especially, the relation between expenditure ceilings and the surplus target is explained. Then the paper discusses the track record of the expenditure ceilings, describes the budget margin mechanism and the principles for deciding the nominal levels of the ceilings. After that the paper highlights some problems with the system. Then the functioning of the system over the economic cycle 1998 to 2005 is discussed. Finally, the conclusions are summarised

THE EFFECT OF CAR SEATS ON NECK INJURIES IN LOW-SPEED REAR IMPACTS

Neck injuries often occur at low impact velocities, typically less than 20kph. Such accidents usually result in minor \u27whiplash\u27 injuries, but about 10% of them lead to permanent disability with degree of disability over 10%. Factors that could influence the risk of sustaining neck injuries in rear impacts include: (1) the distance between the head and the head restraint; (2) the seat\u27s stiffness structure; and (3) the car\u27s rear structure. This article outlines some tests to show whether the seats or the structure affect neck injuries more. Two cars, with empty weights 705kg and 725kg, were impacted from the rear at 20kph by a mobile barrier in two full-scale rear-impact tests. The drivers\u27 seats were retained, but the front passenger seats and their attachments were swapped over. Various motion sensors and high-speed cameras recorded the motions of the dummies in the passenger seats. The motion of dummies in mini-sled rear-impact tests was also recorded. It was found that seat design, not car structure, was the reason for differential dummy loading. Dummy acceleration does not really start until car acceleration has almost finished. The article finally evaluates some new principles for designing a car seat, which aim to minimise the motion between the lower and upper ends of the cervical spine in a rear collision

THE EFFECT OF CAR SEATS ON NECK INJURIES IN LOW-SPEED REAR IMPACTS

Neck injuries often occur at low impact velocities, typically less than 20kph. Such accidents usually result in minor \u27whiplash\u27 injuries, but about 10% of them lead to permanent disability with degree of disability over 10%. Factors that could influence the risk of sustaining neck injuries in rear impacts include: (1) the distance between the head and the head restraint; (2) the seat\u27s stiffness structure; and (3) the car\u27s rear structure. This article outlines some tests to show whether the seats or the structure affect neck injuries more. Two cars, with empty weights 705kg and 725kg, were impacted from the rear at 20kph by a mobile barrier in two full-scale rear-impact tests. The drivers\u27 seats were retained, but the front passenger seats and their attachments were swapped over. Various motion sensors and high-speed cameras recorded the motions of the dummies in the passenger seats. The motion of dummies in mini-sled rear-impact tests was also recorded. It was found that seat design, not car structure, was the reason for differential dummy loading. Dummy acceleration does not really start until car acceleration has almost finished. The article finally evaluates some new principles for designing a car seat, which aim to minimise the motion between the lower and upper ends of the cervical spine in a rear collision