Maternal Medication Use and Risk of Hypospadias- An Exposure Spectrum Approach

Purpose To investigate associations between maternal use of selected medications during early pregnancy and the risk of hypospadias in male infants. Methods We used data from the National Birth Defects Prevention Study, a multi-site, population-based, case-control study. We analyzed data from 1,537 case infants with second or third degree isolated hypospadias and 4,314 male control infants born from 1997-2007. Exposure was based on reported use of any prescription or over-the-counter medication or herbal product, for which there were at least 5 exposed cases, from 1 month before to 4 months after conception, excluding topicals, vitamins, minerals, and products for which the components were unknown. Adjusted odds ratios (aORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) were estimated using multivariable logistic regression, adjusting for several confounders. Results Of the 195 medication components with at least 5 exposed cases, 89 components met the inclusion criteria and were assessed-28 herbal and 61 non-herbal components. Hypospadias was associated with reported use of cephalexin (aOR 3.06; 95% CI 1.02, 9.18), phenylpropanolamine HCl (aOR 2.68; 95% CI 1.06, 6.80), and ibuprofen (aOR 1.16; 95% CI 1.00, 1.34), in primary analyses. Conclusions We replicated a previously observed association between maternal exposure to phenylpropanolamine HCl and hypospadias. The associations with cephalexin and ibuprofen have not previously been reported. Given the exploratory nature of the analyses, these results should be considered hypothesis-generating. Better understanding of the potential fetal effects will allow clinicians and women of childbearing age to make more informed decisions regarding the use of medications during pregnancy

GENETIC VARIATION, LOCAL ADAPTATION AND POPULATION STRUCTURE IN NORTH AMERICAN RED OAK SPECIES, QUERCUS RUBRA L. AND Q. ELLIPSOIDALIS E. J. HILL

Forest trees, like oaks, rely on high levels of genetic variation to adapt to varying environmental conditions. Thus, genetic variation and its distribution are important for the long-term survival and adaptability of oak populations. Climate change is projected to lead to increased drought and fire events as well as a northward migration of tree species, including oaks. Additionally, decline in oak regeneration has become increasingly concerning since it may lead to decreased gene flow and increased inbreeding levels. This will in turn lead to lowered levels of genetic diversity, negatively affecting the growth and survival of populations. At the same time, populations at the species’ distribution edge, like those in this study, could possess important stores of genetic diversity and adaptive potential, while also being vulnerable to climatic or anthropogenic changes. A survey of the level and distribution of genetic variation and identification of potentially adaptive genes is needed since adaptive genetic variation is essential for their long-term survival. Oaks possess a remarkable characteristic in that they maintain their species identity and specific environmental adaptations despite their propensity to hybridize. Thus, in the face of interspecific gene flow, some areas of the genome remain differentiated due to selection. This characteristic allows the study of local environmental adaptation through genetic variation analyses. Furthermore, using genic markers with known putative functions makes it possible to link those differentiated markers to potential adaptive traits (e.g., flowering time, drought stress tolerance). Demographic processes like gene flow and genetic drift also play an important role in how genes (including adaptive genes) are maintained or spread. These processes are influenced by disturbances, both natural and anthropogenic. An examination of how genetic variation is geographically distributed can display how these genetic processes and geographical disturbances influence genetic variation patterns. For example, the spatial clustering of closely related trees could promote inbreeding with associated negative effects (inbreeding depression), if gene flow is limited. In turn this can have negative consequences for a species’ ability to adapt to changing environmental conditions. In contrast, interspecific hybridization may also allow the transfer of genes between species that increase their adaptive potential in a changing environment. I have studied the ecologically divergent, interfertile red oaks, Quercus rubra and Q. ellipsoidalis, to identify genes with potential roles in adaptation to abiotic stress through traits such as drought tolerance and flowering time, and to assess the level and distribution of genetic variation. I found evidence for moderate gene flow between the two species and low interspecific genetic differences at most genetic markers (Lind and Gailing 2013). However, the screening of genic markers with potential roles in phenology and drought tolerance led to the identification of a CONSTANS-like (COL) gene, a candidate gene for flowering time and growth. This marker, located in the coding region of the gene, was highly differentiated between the two species in multiple geographical areas, despite interspecific gene flow, and may play a role in reproductive isolation and adaptive divergence between the two species (Lind-Riehl et al. 2014). Since climate change could result in a northward migration of trees species like oaks, this gene could be important in maintaining species identity despite increased contact zones between species (e.g., increased gene flow). Finally I examined differences in spatial genetic structure (SGS) and genetic variation between species and populations subjected to different management strategies and natural disturbances. Diverse management activities combined with various natural disturbances as well as species specific life history traits influenced SGS patterns and inbreeding levels (Lind-Riehl and Gailing submitted)

THE ROLE OF HYBRIDIZATION AND THE UNITED STATES FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE BIOLOGISTS’ DISCRETION IN THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE ENDANGERED SPECIES ACT

The Endangered Species Act (ESA) requires that the “best available scientific and commercial data” be used to enable the protection of critically imperiled species from extinction and preserve biodiversity. However, the ESA does not provide specific guidance on how to apply this mandate. In addition, the interpretation of scientific data can be uncertain and controversial, particularly regarding species delineation and hybridization issues. US Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) field biologists must decide what the best science is and how to interpret and apply it in their recommendations. As a result, FWS field biologists often have considerable discretion when it comes to making recommendations for what species to list and how to recover them. My study has examined how FWS field biologists’ knowledge and beliefs about species concepts and hybridization may impact their discretion to use the best available science to protect and recover imperiled species. I used semi structured interviews to help uncover how much discretion FWS field biologists believe they have, and their knowledge and beliefs about species concepts and hybridization related to ESA implementation. I found that they have a large amount of discretion to determine what the best available science is and how to interpret it. However, their recommendations are subjected to multiple levels of peer review and generally they defer to the scientific consensus on the taxonomic status of an organism. Hybridization was viewed primarily as a problem in the context of the ESA, which likely reflects the tumultuous history the FWS has had with this issue. However, FWS field biologists who had experience with hybridization issues were more likely to describe it as a complex evolutionary force with varied outcomes rather than wholly negative, as compared to those with little to no experience. Overall, resource limitations and “listing by litigation” impacted ESA implementation more than biologists’ knowledge and beliefs concerning species concepts and hybridization

The Cost of Quality Out-of-School-Time Programs, Executive Summary

Funders and program planners need a clear understanding of the costs of quality afterschool or summer programs to make sound investments. With support from The Wallace Foundation, P/PV partnered with The Finance Project to embark on one of the largest and most rigorous out-of-school-time (OST) cost studies to date, collecting detailed data from 111 programs that varied dramatically in their focus, content, location, staffing, management and hours of operation.This executive summary highlights the full report's key findings, summarizes variations in program costs and provides recommendations for policymakers and funders who seek to build and sustain quality OST programs for children and youth in their communities.In addition, a companion online cost calculator that provides stakeholders with estimates for various program options is available atwww.wallacefoundation.org/cost-of-quality

The Cost of Quality Out-of-School-Time Programs

Funders and program planners want to know: What does it cost to operate a high-quality after-school or summer program? This study answers that question, discovering that there is no "right" number. Cost varies substantially, depending on the characteristics of the participants, the goals of the program, who operates it and where it is located. Based on detailed cost data collected from 111 out-of-school-time programs in six cities, this report, along with an online calculator (www.wallacefoundation.org/cost-of-quality), provides cost averages and ranges for many common types of programs

The Costs of Out-of-School Time Programs

Out-of-school-time (OST) programs are a vital component of children's academic and social development. Nationwide, 6.5 million schoolage children participate in OST programs that seek to ensure their safety, develop and nurture their talents, improve their academic behaviors and help them form bonds with adults and youth who are positive role models.1 These programs incorporate a diverse array of organizational models and programmatic approaches.The study provides detailed information on the full cost of quality OST programs, encompassing both out-of-pocket expenditures as well as the value of resources that were contributed in kind (including space), which most other OST studies have not done. Given that in-kind contributions cannot always be counted on when scaling up or building new programs, policymakers, program directors and funders can use the full cost estimates as an upward bound of cost, assuming no donated resources

Failure to communicate: Inefficiencies in voluntary incentive programs for private forest owners in Michigan

Coordinating forest management across thousands of nonindustrial private forest (NIPF) owners is a difficult yet necessary task for state land management agencies. Voluntary Incentive Programs (VIPs) can coordinate the decentralized activities of these owners in return for services or financial incentives. However, many VIPs typically have low enrollment. Our study investigates the implementation of VIPs to increase forest management coordination among NIPFs in Michigan. We present findings from 20 semi-structured interviews with leaders of state and local land management organizations, and government officials at state natural resource agencies, and contrast their answers with those recorded from 37 interviews of NIPF owners regarding their knowledge and attitudes toward VIPs. Our interviews highlight a critical disconnect between NIPF owner motivations and VIP incentives, as well as misallocated resources for VIP promotion by state agencies, driving low enrollment. At the core, low enrollment in VIPs is generated by inadequate communication between NIPF owners and program managers, along with distrust of government agency objectives. Viewing managers as “street level bureaucrats”, civil servants whose job discretion is impacted heavily by available resources, may increase our understanding of the issues plaguing VIPs and help identify improvements to VIP design and implementation

High Pressure Behavior of Chromium and Yttrium Molybdate (Cr2Mo3O12, Y2Mo3O12)

The high pressure behavior of negative thermal expansion materials continues to be of interest, as their potential use in controlled thermal expansion composites can be affected by irreversible pressure-induced phase transitions. To date, it is not possible to predict the high pressure behavior of these compounds, necessitating measurements on each composition. In this work, high pressure synchrotron powder X-ray diffraction studies of Cr2Mo3O12 and Y2Mo3O12 were conducted in a diamond anvil cell. Chromium molybdate, which adopts the monoclinic P21/a structure under ambient conditions, was found to not undergo any crystalline-crystalline transitions up to 8.9 GPa. The orthorhombic ambient pressure polymorph of yttrium molybdate was found to undergo a phase transition to the monoclinic P21/a scandium tungstate structure below 0.13 GPa. This structure is frequently observed for related materials at low temperatures, but has never been reported for Y2Mo3O12. No additional changes in this material were observed up to 4.9 GPa. The fact that the monoclinic polymorphs of these materials do not undergo phase transitions within the studied pressure range makes them unique among A2M3O12 materials, as most isostructural compositions undergo at least one phase transition to crystalline high pressure phases

Investments in Building Citywide Out-of-School-Time Systems: A Six-City Study

This report is the last in a series funded by The Wallace Foundation and developed by P/PV and The Finance Project to document the costs of out-of-school-time (OST) programs and the city-level systems that support them. The report examines the development of OST systems in six cities across the country and summarizes the strategies and activities commonly pursued, their associated investments and options for financing such system-building efforts. These findings can provide OST stakeholders with critical information to help guide their investments in system planning, start-up and ongoing operations. The report serves as a companion to two previous resources: The Cost of Quality Out-of-School-Time Programs, which provides information on both the average out-of-pocket expenditures and the average full cost of a wide range of quality OST programs; and an online cost calculator that enables users to generate tailored cost estimates for many different types of OST programs