To respond or not to respond - a personal perspective of intestinal tolerance

For many years, the intestine was one of the poor relations of the immunology world, being a realm inhabited mostly by specialists and those interested in unusual phenomena. However, this has changed dramatically in recent years with the realization of how important the microbiota is in shaping immune function throughout the body, and almost every major immunology institution now includes the intestine as an area of interest. One of the most important aspects of the intestinal immune system is how it discriminates carefully between harmless and harmful antigens, in particular, its ability to generate active tolerance to materials such as commensal bacteria and food proteins. This phenomenon has been recognized for more than 100 years, and it is essential for preventing inflammatory disease in the intestine, but its basis remains enigmatic. Here, I discuss the progress that has been made in understanding oral tolerance during my 40 years in the field and highlight the topics that will be the focus of future research

Microbial Electrosynthesis: Where Do We Go from Here?

The valorization of CO2 to valuable products via microbial electrosynthesis (MES) is a technology transcending the disciplines of microbiology, (electro)chemistry, and engineering, bringing opportunities and challenges. As the field looks to the future, further emphasis is expected to be placed on engineering efficient reactors for biocatalysts, to thrive and overcome factors which may be limiting performance. Meanwhile, ample opportunities exist to take the lessons learned in traditional and adjacent electrochemical fields to shortcut learning curves. As the technology transitions into the next decade, research into robust and adaptable biocatalysts will then be necessary as reactors shape into larger and more efficient configurations, as well as presenting more extreme temperature, salinity, and pressure conditions.</p

Microbial Electrosynthesis: Where Do We Go from Here?

The valorization of CO2 to valuable products via microbial electrosynthesis (MES) is a technology transcending the disciplines of microbiology, (electro)chemistry, and engineering, bringing opportunities and challenges. As the field looks to the future, further emphasis is expected to be placed on engineering efficient reactors for biocatalysts, to thrive and overcome factors which may be limiting performance. Meanwhile, ample opportunities exist to take the lessons learned in traditional and adjacent electrochemical fields to shortcut learning curves. As the technology transitions into the next decade, research into robust and adaptable biocatalysts will then be necessary as reactors shape into larger and more efficient configurations, as well as presenting more extreme temperature, salinity, and pressure conditions.BT/Bioprocess EngineeringChemE/Materials for Energy Conversion & Storag

Editorial: Microbial Electrogenesis, Microbial Electrosynthesis, and Electro-bioremediation

BT/Bioprocess Engineerin

Biomass-specific rates as key performance indicators: A nitrogen balancing method for biofilm-based electrochemical conversion

Microbial electrochemical technologies (METs) employ microorganisms utilizing solid-state electrodes as either electron sink or electron source, such as in microbial electrosynthesis (MES). METs reaction rate is traditionally normalized to the electrode dimensions or to the electrolyte volume, but should also be normalized to biomass amount present in the system at any given time. In biofilm-based systems, a major challenge is to determine the biomass amount in a non-destructive manner, especially in systems operated in continuous mode and using 3D electrodes. We developed a simple method using a nitrogen balance and optical density to determine the amount of microorganisms in biofilm and in suspension at any given time. For four MES reactors converting CO2 to carboxylates, &gt;99% of the biomass was present as biofilm after 69 days of reactor operation. After a lag phase, the biomass-specific growth rate had increased to 0.12–0.16 days−1. After 100 days of operation, growth became insignificant. Biomass-specific production rates of carboxylates varied between 0.08–0.37 molC molX−1d−1. Using biomass-specific rates, one can more effectively assess the performance of MES, identify its limitations, and compare it to other fermentation technologies.</p

A General Model for Biofilm-Driven Microbial Electrosynthesis of Carboxylates From CO₂

Up to now, computational modeling of microbial electrosynthesis (MES) has been underexplored, but is necessary to achieve breakthrough understanding of the process-limiting steps. Here, a general framework for modeling microbial kinetics in a MES reactor is presented. A thermodynamic approach is used to link microbial metabolism to the electrochemical reduction of an intracellular mediator, allowing to predict cellular growth and current consumption. The model accounts for CO2 reduction to acetate, and further elongation to n-butyrate and n-caproate. Simulation results were compared with experimental data obtained from different sources and proved the model is able to successfully describe microbial kinetics (growth, chain elongation, and product inhibition) and reactor performance (current density, organics titer). The capacity of the model to simulate different system configurations is also shown. Model results suggest CO2 dissolved concentration might be limiting existing MES systems, and highlight the importance of the delivery method utilized to supply it. Simulation results also indicate that for biofilm-driven reactors, continuous mode significantly enhances microbial growth and might allow denser biofilms to be formed and higher current densities to be achieved.BT/Bioprocess Engineerin

CO₂ Conversion by Combining a Copper Electrocatalyst and Wild-type Microorganisms

Carbon dioxide (CO2) can be converted to valuable products using different catalysts, including metal or biological catalysts (e. g. microorganisms). Some products formed by metal electrocatalysts can be further utilized by microorganisms, and therefore catalytic cooperation can be envisioned. To prevent cumbersome separations, it is beneficial when both catalyst work under the same conditions, or at least in the same reaction medium. Here, we will show that a formate-producing copper electrocatalyst can function in a biological medium. Furthermore, we will show that the effluent of the copper-containing reactor can be used without purification as the sole medium for a bio-reactor, inoculated with a mixed culture of microorganisms. In that second reactor, formate, H2 and CO2 are consumed by the microorganisms, forming acetate and methane. Compared to simple buffer electrolyte, catalytic activity of copper was improved in the presence of microbial growth medium, likely due to EDTA (Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid) present in the latter.</p

Techno-economic assessment of microbial electrosynthesis from CO₂ and/or organics: An interdisciplinary roadmap towards future research and application

Microbial electrosynthesis (MES) allows carbon-waste and renewable electricity valorization into industrially-relevant chemicals. MES has received much attention in laboratory-scale research, although a techno-economic-driven roadmap towards validation and large-scale demonstration of the technology is lacking. In this work, two main integrated systems were modelled, centered on (1) MES-from-CO2 and (2) MES from short-chain carboxylates, both for the production of pure, or mixture of, acetate, n–butyrate, and n–caproate. Twenty eight key parameters were identified, and their impact on techno-economic feasibility of the systems assessed. The main capital and operating costs were found to be the anode material cost (59%) and the electricity consumption (up to 69%), respectively. Under current state-of-the-art MES performance and economic conditions, these systems were found non-viable. However, it was demonstrated that sole improvement of MES performance, independent of improvement of non-technological parameters, would result in profitability. In otherwise state-of-the-art conditions, an improved electron selectivity (≥36%) towards n-caproate, especially at the expense of acetate, was showed to result in positive net present values (i.e. profitability; NPV). Cell voltage, faradaic efficiency, and current density also have significant impact on both the capital and operating costs. Variation in electricity cost on overall process feasibility was also investigated, with a cost lower than 0.045 € kWh−1 resulting in positive NPV of the state-of-the-art scenario. Maximum purification costs were also determined to assess the integration of a product's separation unit, which was showed possible at positive NPV. Finally, we briefly discuss CO2 electroreduction versus MES, and their potential market complementarities.Environmental Technology and DesignBT/Bioprocess Engineerin

Biomass-specific rates as key performance indicators: A nitrogen balancing method for biofilm-based electrochemical conversion

Microbial electrochemical technologies (METs) employ microorganisms utilizing solid-state electrodes as either electron sink or electron source, such as in microbial electrosynthesis (MES). METs reaction rate is traditionally normalized to the electrode dimensions or to the electrolyte volume, but should also be normalized to biomass amount present in the system at any given time. In biofilm-based systems, a major challenge is to determine the biomass amount in a non-destructive manner, especially in systems operated in continuous mode and using 3D electrodes. We developed a simple method using a nitrogen balance and optical density to determine the amount of microorganisms in biofilm and in suspension at any given time. For four MES reactors converting CO2 to carboxylates, &gt;99% of the biomass was present as biofilm after 69 days of reactor operation. After a lag phase, the biomass-specific growth rate had increased to 0.12–0.16 days−1. After 100 days of operation, growth became insignificant. Biomass-specific production rates of carboxylates varied between 0.08–0.37 molC molX−1d−1. Using biomass-specific rates, one can more effectively assess the performance of MES, identify its limitations, and compare it to other fermentation technologies.BT/Bioprocess Engineerin

Catalytic Cooperation between a Copper Oxide Electrocatalyst and a Microbial Community for Microbial Electrosynthesis

Electrocatalytic metals and microorganisms can be combined for CO2 conversion in microbial electrosynthesis (MES). However, a systematic investigation on the nature of interactions between metals and MES is still lacking. To investigate this nature, we integrated a copper electrocatalyst, converting CO2 to formate, with microorganisms, converting CO2 to acetate. A co-catalytic (i. e. metabolic) relationship was evident, as up to 140 mg L-1 of formate was produced solely by copper oxide, while formate was also evidently produced by copper and consumed by microorganisms producing acetate. Due to non-metabolic interactions, current density decreased by over 4 times, though acetate yield increased by 3.3 times. Despite the antimicrobial role of copper, biofilm formation was possible on a pure copper surface. Overall, we show for the first time that a CO2 -reducing copper electrocatalyst can be combined with MES under biological conditions, resulting in metabolic and non-metabolic interactions.</p