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Lichens are, in most cases, sensitive to anthropogenic factors such as air pollution, global warming, forestry and fragmentation. Two studies are included in this thesis. The first is an evaluation of the importance of old oak for the rare epiphytic lichen Cliostomum corrugatum (Ach.) Fr. This study analysed whether C. corrugatum was limited by dispersal or restricted to tree stands with an unbroken continuity or the substrate old oaks. The results provide evidence that the investigated five populations in Östergötland, Sweden, of C. corrugatum exhibit substantial gene flow, an effective dispersal and a small genetic variation between the sites. Most of the genetic variation was within the populations. Thus, C. corrugatum is more dependent of the substrate old oaks, rather than limited by dispersal. The second study investigated possible range shift of some common macrolichens, due to global warming, from 64 sites in southern Sweden comparing the two years 1986 and 2003. The centroid of three lichen species had moved a significant distance, all in a north east direction: Hypogymnia physodes (L.) Nyl. and Vulpicida pinastri (Scop.) J.-E. Mattsson and M. J. Lai on the tree species Juniperus communis L. (50 and 151 km, respectively) and H. physodes on Pinus sylvestris L. (41 km). Considering also the non-significant cases, there is strong evidence for a prevailing NE direction of centroid movement

A New Approach to Accessibility – Perceived accessibility versus objectively measured accessibility in daily travel

Accessibility has conventionally been measured and evaluated ignoring the user-perspective in favor for focus on travel time and distance to a number of pre-determined destinations. Acknowledging this gap, we recently developed a scale for perceived accessibility PAC (Lättman, Friman, & Olsson 2016) aimed at capturing the individual perspective of accessibility within a certain travel mode. In this paper, we 1) further develop the PAC measure of perceived accessibility in order to capture the perceived accessibility of the individuals’ actual daily travel 2) compare residents’ perceived accessibility to the objective accessibility level for the same residential area, and 3) compare levels of perceived accessibility between residential areas and main travel modes. Data from 2711 residents of Malmö, Sweden show that perceived accessibility is consistently higher than objective accessibility across 13 residential areas, with minor differences in levels of perceived accessibility between areas. Surprisingly, bicycle users rate their accessibility significantly higher than those who mainly use the car or public transport for daily travel, contrary to objective accessibility assumptions. These differences point at the importance of including perceived accessibility as a complementary tool when planning for and evaluating the transport systems.Institute of Transport and Logistics Studies. Faculty of Economics and Business. The University of Sydne

Constitutional Existence Conditions and Judicial Review

Although critics of judicial review sometimes call for making the entire Constitution nonjusticiable, many familiar norms of constitutional law state what we call existence conditions that are necessarily enforced by judicial actors charged with the responsibility of applying, and thus as a preliminary step, identifying, propositions of sub-constitutional law such as statutes. Article I, Section 7, which sets forth the procedures by which a bill becomes a law, is an example: a putative law that did not go through the Article I, Section 7 process and does not satisfy an alternative test for legal validity (such as the treaty-making provision of Article II, Section 2), has no legal existence. A judge who disclaims the power of judicial review nevertheless enforces Article I, Section 7 when he finds that a putative statute is (or is not) an enactment of Congress that he must take account of. We contrast existence conditions with application conditions that limit the legal force of a proposition of nonconstitutional law by some means other than vitiating the status of that proposition as law. For example, absent payment of just compensation, the Takings Clause would block the application of an otherwise valid statute such as the Endangered Species Act to a privately owned parcel of land if the impact of that application were to destroy all economically viable use of the parcel. Judicial enforcement of application conditions is not entailed by the enforcement of ordinary sub-constitutional law, even though judicial non-enforcement of application conditions might be unwise. After setting forth the conceptual distinction between existence and application conditions, we argue that many familiar constitutional provisions and doctrines - including the scope of enumerated powers and some individual rights - are best read as existence conditions and are thus necessarily judicially enforced. We then reconcile that observation with a variety of doctrines - including the political question doctrine, the enrolled bill doctrine, and the rational basis test - that seem to authorize the courts not to enforce or to under-enforce existence conditions. We argue that these doctrines should be understood in some instances as granting epistemic deference to non-judicial interpreters of the Constitution and in other instances as reflecting the fact that some constitutional provisions and doctrines are perspectival - that is, they have different content for different addressees

Public transport equity in Shenyang: Using structural equation modelling

In China, with the rapid development of urbanisation, the contradiction between supply and demand has become increasingly severe, particularly in large and medium-sized cities. Improving public transport equity can help to reduce the social exclusion of lower-income and socially vulnerable groups in relation to the urban transport system, and guarantee that public transport systems are given priority in terms of development. Using the concept of transport-related social equity, this study aims to explore the effects of public transport equity in relation to the quality of public transport, public participation, and public transport-related policy using Shenyang as a case study. Data are analysed using Structural Equation Model (SEM). Our findings show that the three latent variables of accessibility, affordability, and social impacts can be seen as representing the main characteristics of public transport equity; while improvements in public transport quality, public participation, and public transport-related polices play a significant role in reducing public transport inequity. Moreover, the findings indicate that public participation has direct, significant, positive influences on public transport quality and public transport-related policies. In terms of policy implications, we suggest that policies designed to improve public transport service quality, extend public transport fare concessions, and promote public participation in the public transport policy decision-making process should be given priority in the next round of urban comprehensive planning in order to reduce public transport-related social inequity in Shenyang and China more generally

Fine spatial pattern of an epiphytic lichen species is affected by habitat conditions in two forest types in the Iberian Mediterranean region

Persistence and abundance of species is determined by habitat availability and the ability to disperse and colonize habitats at contrasting spatial scales. Favourable habitat fragments are also heterogeneous in quality, providing differing opportunities for establishment and affecting the population dynamics of a species. Based on these principles, we suggest that the presence and abundance of epiphytes may reflect their dispersal ability, which is primarily determined by the spatial structure of host trees, but also by host quality. To our knowledge there has been no explicit test of the importance of host tree spatial pattern for epiphytes in Mediterranean forests. We hypothesized that performance and host occupancy in a favourable habitat depend on the spatial pattern of host trees, because this pattern affects the dispersal ability of each epiphyte and it also determines the availability of suitable sites for establishment. We tested this hypothesis using new point pattern analysis tools and generalized linear mixed models to investigate the spatial distribution and performance of the epiphytic lichen Lobaria pulmonaria, which inhabits two types of host trees (beeches and Iberian oaks). We tested the effects on L. pulmonaria distribution of tree size, spatial configuration, and host tree identity. We built a model including tree size, stand structure, and several neighbourhood predictors to understand the effect of host tree on L. pulmonaria. We also investigated the relative importance of spatial patterning on the presence and abundance of the species, independently of the host tree configuration. L. pulmonaria distribution was highly dependent on habitat quality for successful establishment, i.e., tree species identity, tree diameter, and several forest stand structure surrogates. For beech trees, tree diameter was the main factor influencing presence and cover of the lichen, although larger lichen-colonized trees were located close to focal trees, i.e., young trees. However, oak diameter was not an important factor, suggesting that bark roughness at all diameters favoured lichen establishment. Our results indicate that L. pulmonaria dispersal is not spatially restricted, but it is dependent on habitat quality. Furthermore, new spatial analysis tools suggested that L. pulmonaria cover exhibits a distinct pattern, although the spatial pattern of tree position and size was random

Morphological Convergence in Forest Microfungi Provides a Proxy for Paleogene Forest Structure

Amber, fossilized plant resin from gymnosperms and angiosperms, is renowned for preserving a wide range of organisms in microscopic fidelity. These so-called amber inclusions comprise many groups of organisms, ranging from bacteria to arthropods and vertebrates. Calicioid lichens and fungi, which are from now on referred to as “calicioids,” constitute a diverse group of tiny ascomycetes with superficially similar, usually well-stalked ascomata and which often accumulate mature ascospores on top of the apothecial disk to form a true mazaedium. The aim of this study is to use all available information on the morphology and ecology of extant calicioids to reconstruct the substrate and habitat ecology of known fossil calicioids and then to use this information to open new insights into the stand structure and ecological conditions of European Paleogene amber forests. First, we introduce the morphology of extant calicioids and demonstrate that their structural features are intimately linked to habitat ecology and are instrumental for successful dispersal; we also explain the conspicuous morphological convergence between phylogenetically distant calicioid fungi. Then, we show that the adaptive traits of calicioids have not changed since at least the Eocene, and argue that their fundamental niches also have remained unchanged. Finally, we summarize what the diversity and relative abundance of fossil calicioids in amber tells us about the ecological conditions that once prevailed in European amber forests.Peer reviewe

Revisiting the built environment: 10 potential development changes and paradigm shifts due to COVID-19

This study explores potential development and paradigm shifts in two main sectors of construction and the built environment due to COVID-19. These development changes are discussed based on evidence from previous pandemics, current and expected impacts on both industries, and how they are likely to shape the next policy, practices, and perspectives. By assessing the primary areas of both sectors through an expert-led analysis, this study suggests 10 potential development changes that we could expect in the post-COVID time. These potential changes are discussed as possible new practices, empowered regulations, or adaptive measures; and eventually towards paradigm shifts. A total of 50 participants contributed to the selection, identification, and assessment of these potential changes. The findings from this study feed into the assessment of ongoing and forthcoming changes as a result of the current pandemic, specifically on two sectors of ‘construction’ and ‘the built environment’. These will include paradigm shifts in architecture practices, civil engineering practices, project management, and urbanism. Some of the suggestions in this study may harness shared practices, and some may simply develop into new forms of development practices in both sectors

Nämdöskärgården Center for Marine Wildlife and Science

The outcome of this project is a proposal called Nämdöskärgården Marine Wildlife Center, located on Nämdö in the area of Östanvik. The proposal consists of a series of structures that together will function as a gate to the wildlife experience of the national park, for both educational, scientific and leisure purposes. The program is essentially divided in two main components: (1) a publicly profiled visitor center including functions such as exhibition space, science and lecture hall, bar/restaurant as well as an office space and a conference room, and (2) accommodation typologies aimed to meet the needs from a broad variety of guest constellations at any season of the year. Additionally, along the shoreline of the bay the proposal also suggests two leisure oriented structures and jetties; one bathing jetty with a sauna and locker room and one guest jetty for boats and a rental service for outdoor wildlife activities

Perceived Accessibility : Capturing the Traveller Perspective

The main purpose of this thesis is introducing and proposing perceived accessibility as an important and so far overseen complement to conventional, objective accessibility in sustainable transport. Perceived accessibility is defined as the possibilities and ease of engaging in preferred activities using different transport modes. Implications for sustainable transport planning along with possible social outcomes related to perceived accessibility are also discussed.   The thesis comprises two empirical studies. In Study I a psychometric measure (PAC) that captures perceived accessibility was developed and validated in three different datasets by exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses. All data was collected in Karlstad, Sweden in 2013 and 2014 with a total of 750 participants (bus travelers). Perceived accessibility is suggested as a complement to objective accessibility by contributing with the traveler perspective.  Study II aimed at examining determinants of perceived accessibility focusing on service quality aspects, feelings of safety, age, and trip frequency. Study II used the same data as Study I in a conditional process model to look at the relations between perceived accessibility and its proposed determinants. Service quality and feelings of safety were found important predictors of perceived accessibility, and safety also explains part of the effect of quality on perceived accessibility. These relationships were not dependent on trip frequency (as in how often one travels by public transport). Age also predicted perceived accessibility, and a follow-up cluster analysis showed that elderly and people in their thirties experience significantly lower perceived accessibility than other age groups.Denna licentiatuppsats behandlar upplevd tillgänglighet, det vill säga resenärsperspektivet på tillgänglighet, som ett viktigt komplement till konventionell (objektiv) tillgänglighet inom hållbart resande. Uppsatsen introducerar upplevd tillgänglighet och dess nytta och plats i forskningen samt implikationer för planering och utvärdering av hållbara transporter. Vidare behandlas påverkansfaktorer för upplevd tillgänglighet samt relaterade individuella utfall som subjektivt välbefinnande och social exkludering/inkludering utifrån teori och empiri.   Uppsatsen innefattar två empiriska studier. Studie I utvecklar och testar ett psykometriskt mätinstrument för upplevd tillgänglighet med data från tre enkät-tillfällen (n= 750) i Karlstad. Dataset 1 analyserades med explorativ faktoranalys för att få fram ett instrument som fångar upplevd tillgänglighet (PAC) och validerades därefter i två dataset. Studie II avsåg att undersöka vad som bidrar till upplevd tillgänglighet med fokus på kvalitetsattribut i resan (service quality), resenärens upplevda trygghet, samt ålder och resvana. Samma data som i studie I användes i en conditional process model för att undersöka sambanden, samt i en klusteranalys för att ytterligare undersöka skillnader i resultatet mellan olika grupper av resenärer. Resultatet visar att upplevd tillgänglighet kan ha betydelse som komplement till befintliga mätningar och utvärderingar av tillgänglighet genom att bidra med resenärsperspektivet. Ett antal påverkansfaktorer för upplevd tillgänglighet kan konstateras, däribland kvalitet samt resenärens upplevda känsla av trygghet. Betydelsen av kvalitet för tillgänglighet är densamma oavsett hur ofta man reser, däremot upplever de som reser ofta en signifikant högre tillgänglighet än de som reser sällan. Äldre resenärer och resenärer i 30-årsåldern påvisar signifikant lägre upplevd tillgänglighet.This thesis proposes perceived accessibility as a complement to conventional accessibility in sustainable transport planning and evaluation. Perceived accessibility is defined as the possibilities and ease of engaging in preferred activities using different transport modes and captures the traveller experience and perspective of accessibility. The thesis introduces an instrument for measuring perceived accessibility (PAC) along with determinants for perceived accessibility, such as feelings of safety, age, and perceived quality. Related social outcomes such as social inclusion and subjective well-being are discussed, along with possible implications for transport planning and suggestions for future research