A palaeodemographic, palaeopathologic and morphologic study of the 20th Century Venda

In 1999, the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF) initiated the development of the Nandoni Dam. A component of this project was the relocation of seven rural villages, which include Mulenzhe, Budeli, Dididi, Mpego, Machivandihala Agricultural College, Mutoti and Tshilangoma. Upon request from the community, DWAF had to provide for the exhumation of approximately 1,000 graves dating to the 20th century. A comprehensive analysis of the 160 skeletons (118 adults and 42 juveniles) found in association with these graves was performed, and a description of the health and disease patterns of these rural communities was provided. A secondary objective of this study was to assess the biological affinity of the Venda by examining both craniometric and odontometric traits. A demographic profile of these communities revealed a high incidence of death in children less than 5 years of age and medium ranged adult mortality that peaked between 45 and 55 years of age. This profile is similar to other contemporary black South African communities, and has been associated with poverty, poor living conditions and poor sanitation. When compared to Iron Age populations, it was noted that a dramatic decline in child mortality and a slight increase in adult longevity has occurred in black South African populations within the past 800 years. This may be associated with a reduction in the number of children born per mother and general improvements in lifestyle and living conditions. Medical researchers suggest that infectious disease and parasite infestation were high in rural Venda communities during the 20th century. Despite the high pathogen load in the environment, skeletal markers of non-specific diseases in this study were found to be minimal. This may be attributed to the administering of medication at both hospitals and local clinics, which would have arrested the development of diseases caused by bacteria and parasites. Overall, it appears that medicine improved health for the individual, but it was relatively ineffective on reducing the number of pathogens in the general environment. Dental health was relatively good for these communities. Tooth decay was more common in Venda than other agricultural based populations and may be related to the increased consumption of western foods such as refined maize and sugar. The results of uni- and multivariate statistical analyses on the craniometric and odontometric traits are indicative of a stronger relationship between the Venda and South African Negroid populations than the East Africa groups. This supports the idea of local development of the Venda people in the Soutpansberg region. These results are also in agreement with other studies that have shown similarities in cranial and dental morphology of South African Negroids with the Venda. Due to the small sample size from K2, it was not possible to establish a direct relationship between this group and the Venda. However, it is prudent to say that both groups can be classified as South African Negroids.Thesis (DPhil)-University of Pretoria, 2005Anatomyunrestricte

Ancestral variations in the shape and size of the zygoma

The variable development of the zygoma, dictating its shape and size variations among ancestral groups, has important clinical implications and valuable anthropological and evolutionary inferences. The purpose of the study was to review the literature regarding the variations in the zygoma with ancestry. Ancestral variation in the zygoma reflects genetic variations because of genetic drift as well as natural selection and epigenetic changes to adapt to diet and climate variations with possible intensification by isolation. Prominence of the zygoma, zygomaxillary tuberosity, and malar tubercle have been associated with Eastern Asian populations in whom these features intensified. Prominence of the zygoma is also associated with groups from Eastern Europe and the rest of Asia. Diffusion of these traits occurred across the Behring Sea to the Arctic areas and to North and South America. The greatest zygomatic projections are exhibited in Arctic groups as an adaptation to extreme cold conditions, while Native South American groups also present with other features of facial robusticity. Groups from Australia, Malaysia, and Oceania show prominence of the zygoma to a certain extent, possibly because of archaic occupations by undifferentiated Southeast Asian populations. More recent interactions with Chinese groups might explain the prominent cheekbones noted in certain South African groups. Many deductions regarding evolutionary processes and diversifications of early groups have been made. Cognisance of these ancestral variations also have implications for forensic anthropological assessments as well as plastic and reconstructive surgery. More studies are needed to improve accuracy of forensic anthropological identification techniques.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1002/(ISSN)1932-84942018-01-31hb2017Anatom

Estimating sex among South African groups using the dentition

this process as other aspects of the biological profile such as age-at-death, population affinity and stature depend on accurate sex estimates. While the pelvis and long bones, respectively, take preference over the dentition and cranium for sex estimation, dentition remains a good proxy for this parameter due to their post-mortem longevity. The purpose of this study is to examine dental size variation in incisors, canines, premolars and molars of black, white and coloured South Africans and to use discriminant function statistics (LDA) to develop population-specific formulae for the estimation of sex. A total of 906 adult crania were analysed. Measurements included four permanent tooth crown dimensions: maximum mesiodistal, maximum buccolingual and molar diagonal diameters (mesio-buccal – disto-lingual and mesio-lingual – disto-buccal). Statistical analyses included TEM, Student’s t-test, ANOVA, and discriminant function analysis (DFA). Dental dimensions are repeatable with low intra and inter-observer errors ranging from 0.09% to 4.17% and 0.18–6.17%, respectively. Of the 36 dental variables, 26 were statistically significant for biological sex and 17 for population affinity, and included all tooth types. Stepwise discriminant functions with a LOOCV provided correct classification rates of up to 86% for sex.The National Research Foundation (NRF), South Africahttp://www.elsevier.com/locate/fsiram2022Anatom

Sexual dimorphism in cranial morphology among modern South Africans

Pattern expressions of morphoscopic cranial traits vary across populations with classification accuracies being highly dependent on the reference collection to which unknown skulls are compared. Despite recent developments in populationspecific standards for South Africans, researchers have not addressed the accuracy of morphological methods. Several studies demonstrate differences in sexual dimorphism between South Africans and North Americans, warranting a need to re-evaluate sex estimation methods in South Africa. The purposes of this study were to test the reliability and accuracy of the Walker (2008) method and to examine patterns of sexual dimorphism among South Africans. A total of 245 modern Black and White South African male and female crania from the Pretoria Bone Collection, University of Pretoria, were scored using theWalker (2008) methodology. Cohen’s kappa was used to evaluate reliability of the method, and percent correct assessed validity of the method. Logistic regression was utilised to create modified population-specific formulae. Inter- and intra-observer agreement was moderate to excellent (0.60–0.90), except for the mental eminence (0.40). The percent correct results for sex were 80%or higher for combinations of glabella,mastoid andmenton and between 68 % and 73 % for menton, mastoid, orbital and nuchal margin using logistic equations of Walker (2008). White males had the highest (94–97 %) and White females had the lowest (31–62 %) percent correct. The low accuracies obtained when using Walker’s (2008) equations emphasised the need for population-specific sex estimation models. Modified formulae for South Africans were created, yielding higher classification rates (84–93 %) than when North American standards were employed.National Research Foundation (NRF)http://link.springer.com/journal/4142016-07-31hb201

Repeatability of a morphoscopic sex estimation technique for the mental eminence on micro-focus X-ray computed tomography models

OBJECTIVES : Walker's sex estimation method is based on five morphoscopic features of the human skull. This study aimed at testing the repeatability of one of the five traits, the mental eminence, visually on three-dimensional (3D) models, compared to the traditional, tactile scoring approach on bone. MATERIALS AND METHODS : The sample comprised 105 mandibles from the Pretoria Bone Collection and their respective virtual 3D models, obtained from micro-focus X-ray computed tomography (micro-XCT) scans. Four observers independently scored the bones first, followed by the virtual 3D modality. Intra- and interobserver errors (interOE and intraOE) were performed with Fleiss’ and Cohen's Kappa, respectively. We calculated the intermodality agreement per observer with Wilcoxon Signed-Rank tests. RESULTS : The intraOE was moderate on bone (κ=0.448) and substantial on 3D (κ=0.799), while the Fleiss’ Kappa test for the interOE resulted in slight agreement both on bone (κ=0.163) and 3D (κ=0.169) irrespective of level of experience. All Wilcoxon Signed-Rank test P-values were significant. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION : The application of the morphoscopic sex estimation for the mental eminence to micro-XCTs could be a matter of personal affinity as the level of experience did not play a role in the results. The expression of the mental eminence trait being population-specific, the individual's population affinity should be considered when sex is estimated in South African skeletons. It remains unclear whether the slight agreement between observers is due to the unreliability of the trait for sex estimation or whether the modalities are not easily interchangeable.UP Postgraduate Bursary, AESOP Erasmus Mundus program, the University of Pretoria, the National Research Foundation of South Africa, the Bakeng se Afrika funding and Erasmus+ KA2 Capacity Building in Higher Education.https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/forensic-imaginghj2022Anatom

Human evolution in the South African school curriculum

A decade after the introduction of the topic into the South African public school curriculum, the theory of evolution by natural selection is poorly understood among those who teach it, and that flawed understanding is transferred to those attempting to learn it. The curricula, support material and textbooks designed to underpin teaching and learning of evolution are often inaccurate. Deeply held religious views in the country, especially Christianity, remain a stumbling block towards understanding and accepting evolution. The lack of scientific literacy allows for the continuation of Social Darwinism and racial stereotypes and deprives the victims of those ills of the knowledge and mechanisms of thought to counter these ideas. This review explores the relatively sparse but nevertheless well-conducted research into evolution education in South Africa. We conclude that an understanding of human evolution is essential to the country’s growing democracy because it provides a framework within which South Africans can understand and appreciate the diversity and heterogeneous nature of our society. SIGNIFICANCE : Various obstacles in the teaching and learning of evolution are identified, and generalisable recommendations are provided to improve evolution education on a practical level. • Evolution education is important for the South African public: to take pride in our rich fossil resources; to understand and appreciate human diversity; to dispel the racist myths of Social Darwinism; and to ensure the success of our education system by teaching the consilience of induction and logical reasoning. • This synthesis of the research provides a starting point for anyone wanting to conduct evolution education research in South Africa in the future, specifically those in the fields of curriculum reform, life sciences or biological anthropology.National Research Foundation (South Africa)https://www.sajs.co.zapm2020Anatom

Evaluating standard non-metric cranial traits used to determine ancestry on a South African sample

The identification of human skeletal remains begins with the construction of a biological profile of an unknown individual, and includes an assessment of the age, sex, ancestry, and stature. This biological profile originated from early anatomists and anthropologists of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The methods used to determine the identity of an individual have since developed, expanded and been refined by modern anthropologists. However, the determination of age, sex, and stature has enjoyed much more attention than the attribution of ancestry to skeletal remains. This may be due to the difficulty in determining ancestry as well as the stigma that surrounds the categorization of population groups. The aim of this study was to assess the efficacy of non-metric cranial traits currently used to determine ancestry on a South African sample. The study was confined to white (European) and black (African) remains, as well as individuals of Coloured descent. Four hundred (n=400) skulls were obtained from the Pretoria Bone collection, the ancestry of whom are mainly of African and European origin. An additional two-hundred and fifty skulls (n=250) from the Kirsten collection at the University of Stellenbosch provided persons of known mixed/ Coloured descent. Nineteen standard non-metric morphological variants were chosen (17 facial traits, 2 dental traits) and scored. Data were analyzed using Microsoft Excel and SPSS v.11.5 for Windows. Polytomous logistic regression analysis is used to determine relationships between traits and within population specific groups.Poster presented at the University of Pretoria Health Sciences Faculty Day, August 2008, Pretoria, South Africa

The application of fordisc 3.0 to South African crania

FORDISC 3.0 (FD3) is an analytical program distributed by the University of Tennessee that employs discriminant analysis to assist in assessing sex, ancestry, and stature from unidentified skeletal remains. While American researchers regularly use FD3, the program has seen less use elsewhere primarily due to the fact that non-American groups are not well-represented in the database. The purpose of this paper was to test the accuracy and applicability of FD3 on South African groups. The sample contained 226 individuals: 86 blacks (55 male, 31 female) and 101 whites (57 male, 44 female) from the Pretoria Bone Collection along with 15 suspected 'Griqua' (4 male, 11 female) and 24 African farm workers (18 male, 6 female) from the National Museum in Bloemfontein. Age ranged from 21 to 97 years; and specimens showing cranial pathology were excluded. Standard cranial measurements were taken, and only specimens with 15 or more measurements were used. Data were entered in FD3 and separate discriminant functions were constructed for each specimen, comparing it to 4 American subgroups (white-black, male-female). The groups that each specimen was placed in and the posterior probability (PP) of membership in that group were also recorded. Approximately 73% (164/226) of the sample was classified correctly (sex and ancestry). Black females performed the worst (60%), while white females performed best (82%). Misclassification occurred more often for sex than ancestry, eg, black males were often misclassified as black females and vice versa. Average PP for the sample was 0.87, implying that FD3 classified South Africans with a high confidence level. Errors in assignment are not mishaps of the program or statistical techniques; rather FD3 datasets are not representative of the South African population. While FD3 appears relevant for use in South Africa, the addition of South African data to the program is warranted.Poster presented at the University of Pretoria Health Sciences Faculty Day, August 2008, Pretoria, South Africa

Chemical analysis : a tool for differentiation between human and nonhuman bones

Forensic anthropologists play an important role in the identification or exclusion of human remains recovered amongst animal remains and environmental ruins. Accurate separation techniques are needed as small animal bone fragments can easily be mistaken for human neonatal or infant remains. Distinguishing between human and animal bones is easily done if the remains found contain distinctive gross morphological features related to the specific species involved. In the absence of these anatomical characteristics different methods have to be explored to enable the investigator to accurately determine the origin of the remains in question. The aim of this study was therefore to compare the chemical composition of human and nonhuman bones that could aid in separation of skeletal material. As part of a larger MSc, attention is also given to the analyses of human and animal bones. The observed group consisted of dry bone samples removed from the anterior midshaft of four (4) tibiae collected from each of the following herbivorous, carnivorous and omnivorous species: adult sheep (Ovis aries), pigs (Sus scrofa domestica), dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) and humans (Homo sapiens sapiens). The average elemental composition of each of the individual species was measured using a scanning electron microscope (SEM) fitted with an electron dispersive spectrometer (EDS) system. Previous research has indicated that the inorganic composition of bone consists of phosphate (±50%), calcium (±35%), carbonate (±6-7%), citrate, nitrate, sodium, magnesium, fluoride and strontium. The results of this study confirm these findings, but indicate variable percentages in, for example, the strontium content of sheep (0.01%, SD±0.05), pigs (0%), dogs (0.01%, SD±0.02) and humans (0.08%, SD±0.24). These results may prove useful in the exclusion of human bones among animal remains and vice versa.Poster presented at the University of Pretoria Health Sciences Faculty Day, August 2008, Pretoria, South Africa

An evaluation of non-metric cranial traits used to estimate ancestry in a South African sample

Establishing ancestry from a skeleton for forensic purposes has been shown to be difficult. The purpose of this paper is to address the application of thirteen non-metric traits to estimate ancestry in three South African groups, namely White, Black and “Coloured”. In doing so, the frequency distribution of thirteen non-metric traits among South Africans are presented; the relationship of these non-metric traits with ancestry, sex, age at death are evaluated; and Kappa statistics are utilized to assess the inter and intra-rater reliability. Crania of 520 known individuals were obtained from four skeletal samples in South Africa: the Pretoria Bone Collection, the Raymond A. Dart Collection, the Kirsten Collection and the Student Bone Collection from the University of the Free State. Average age at death was 51, with an age range between 18 and 90. Thirteen commonly used non-metric traits from the face and jaw were scored; definition and illustrations were taken from Hefner [2], Bass [6] and Hauser and De Stephano [7]. Frequency distributions, ordinal regression and Cohen's Kappa statistics were performed as a means to assess population variation and repeatability. Frequency distributions were highly variable among South Africans. Twelve of the 13 variables had a statistically significant relationship with ancestry. Sex significantly affected only one variable, inter-orbital breadth, and age at death affected two (anterior nasal spine and alveolar prognathism). The interaction of ancestry and sex independently affected three variables (nasal bone contour, nasal breadth, and interorbital breadth). Seven traits had moderate to excellent repeatability, while poor scoring consistency was noted for six variables. Difficulties in repeating several of the trait scores may require either a need for refinement of the definitions, or these character states may not adequately describe the observable morphology in the population. The application of the traditional experience-based approach for estimating ancestry in forensic case work is problematic.ENL would like to thank the National Research Foundation (NRF) and NAVKOM at the University of Pretoria who provided financial assistance