Case Report: HIV test misdiagnosis

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Inactivation of pathogens in ecological sanitation latrines in Malawi: An observational follow up study

IntroductionIn Malawi, EcoSan sludge from ecological sanitation (EcoSan) latrines has been found to contain helminths, Salmonella and E. coli above WHO recommended levels making sludge unsuitable for direct handling and use on food crops. This research investigated survival of pathogens in EcoSan sludge with time after sealing the pit.MethodAn observational longitudinal follow-up study was conducted where EcoSan latrines were followed from August 2015 to July 2016 in Blantyre and Chikwawa in Southern Malawi. The study enrolled 51 latrines in total with 35 latrines [13 fossa alterna (FAs) and 22 urine diverting dry latrines (UDDLs)] remaining at the end of study. Samples were collected five times from each latrine and examined for helminths, Salmonella and E. coli in the laboratory. Poisson regression was employed to assess factors that significantly contribute to pathogen die off at p<0.05.ResultsAverage concentrations of all pathogens investigated reduced over 12-month follow-up period except for Salmonella which increased. A. lumbricoides, increased to 2.3 viable eggs during the second sampling and decreased to 0.4 viable eggs per gram after 12 months of follow-up. Time was the only consistent predictor for concentration of helminths. Type of latrine and location were not significant predictors of helminths concentration (p>0.05). However, Salmonella and E. coli colonies were significantly higher in UDDLs (Blantyre) than FAs (Chikwawa) (p<0.05).ConclusionPathogen concentration was highest after recommended six months of storage posing a public health risk to those handling and using it for agriculture purposes. It is therefore recommended that the current guidelines be reviewed to suit Malawi context. A storage period of one year or more is recommended.

Challenges to Hygiene Improvement in Developing Countries

Hygiene is defined as conditions or practices conducive to maintaining health and preventing disease. Hygiene has been shown to reduce diarrheal diseases and assist to improve social outcomes in the community. Improving hygiene faces several problems especially in countries with low income per capita of population. Currently, many developing countries already struggle to cope with consistent water shortages and rapid urbanization causing more pressure to limited resources which in turn result in poor hygienic practices in the communities. The common types of hygiene include personal hygiene, water hygiene, food hygiene, and hygiene during waste handling. Different nongovernmental and governmental organizations face different challenges in achieving high levels of hygiene in communities. Some of these challenges include poverty, lack of political commitment, lack of full community participation, inadequate gender inclusion, inadequate data, lack of coordination among actors, and behavioral issues. To reduce these challenges, several measures have been proposed including community empowerment, pushing for equitable access to hygiene needs, advocating for political commitment, promoting gender equity, and enhancing youth involvement

Casualisation of labour in the Zambian mining industry with specific reference to Mopani Copper Mines Plc

A research report submitted to the Faculty of Humanities, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the of Masters of Arts Degree in Labour and Development, Economic Policy, Globalisation and Labour (Labour Policy and Globalisation). Johannesburg, 2016Zambia has been implementing economic liberalisation policies at the advice of the IMF and the World Bank, to reverse years of economic decline that began with the commodity crisis of the 1970s. As a strategy for economic growth, these included, the deregulation of foreign investment, removal of currency controls, trade liberalisation, decontrolling prices, cutting food subsidies, reduction of state control in running the economy and privatization of state run companies. The rapid implementation of these measures by the Zambian government has seen a change in employment trends in the mining industry from permanent employment to casualisation of labour.These measures have resulted into negative social and economicconsequences on the lives of the casualised mine workers such as job insecurity, poor health and safety standards, lack of protection and union representation, poor remuneration, lack of pension,and other forms of exploitation. Despite booms and busts in the copper price, employment levels have been drastically dropping especially among the permanent mine workers as a cost cutting measure. The role of the state in the running of the mines which Zambia has depended on since independence has diminished significantly and the state is increasingly succumbing to the dictates of the mining Trans-National Corporations (TNCs).The study which was conducted among casualised/contract rock ore drillers at Mopani Copper Mines Plc reaffirms arguments by previous researchers that economic liberalisation has not achieved the high expectations that Zambians wished for and that there is need for government and trade unions to protect the welfare and working conditions of these casualised mine workers who have become a new set of underclass. Through in-depth interviews, observations and documentary analysis, this research has brought to light the social and economic experiences of casualised/contract rock ore drillers at Mopani Copper Mines Plc and questions whether Zambian mine workers were better off when the mines were being run by the state than is currently the case under TNCs.MT201

A critical discourse analysis of how South African publics engaged in the social media platform, Facebook, over Nkandlagate in 2015

A Research project submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of MA by course work and Research Report in the Department of Journalism and Media Studies, Faculty of Humanities University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg March 2016The Nkandlagate scandal, in which the South African President, Jacob Zuma allegedly spent an estimated R246 million of taxpayers’ money on the renovation of his Nkandla residence, created huge public outcry. This reached yet another height in 2015 when Zuma’s administration declared that the President was not going to pay back the money as demanded by the South African publics. The publics of South Africa used social media platforms to express themselves over the decision. Studies have shown that social media platforms provide an opportunity for political mobilisation of publics and their participation in democracy. Using critical discourse analysis, this study seeks to investigate how South African publics engaged in the social media platform, particularly Facebook, over Nkandlagate. The research focuses on the discussions by two political parties’ Facebook pages: an opposition party, the Economic Freedom Fighters (EFF), and the ruling African National Congress (ANC). The analysis involves posts and comments made by South African publics on each of the Facebook pages to establish how South Africans made use of Facebook to express themselves over Nkandlagate, how the two parties covered Nkandlagate and what kind of discourse emerged from the parties’ posts. The concepts used in this research include the networked public sphere, democracy, watchdog and collective will/opinion. Three dimensions of critical discourse analysis were used for data analysis in this study: description (text genres), interpretation (discursive type) and explanation (social practice.) The insights of South African publics social practices were recognised. This research argues that to a large extent, social media has provided South African publics with access to Facebook a public sphere through which democracy – particularly in terms of freedom of speech – is exercised. However, there is a lack of democratic interaction in that although there was interactive engagement amongst publics, there was a lack of interactive engagement between politicians and publics.MT201

Deconvolution of Mono-Energetic and Multi-Lines Gamma-Ray Spectra Obtained with NaI(Tl) Scintillation Detectors Using Direct Matrix Inversion Method

Performance of a NaI(Tl) scintillation detector based on the gamma-ray spectroscopy system is not satisfactory in retaining its original peak (which is delta like function) of various gamma ray spectrum. The method of achieving precise peak for the various gamma ray was conducted by converting the observed pulse-height distribution of the NaI(Tl) detector to a true photon spectrum. This method is obtained experimentally with the help of an inverse matrix deconvolution method. The method is based on response matrix generated by the Monte Carlo simulation based on Geant4 package of mono-energy gamma-ray photon ranging from 0.050 to 2.04 MeV in the interval of 10 keV. The comparison of the measured and simulated response function was also performed in order to authenticate the simulation response function. Good agreement was observed around the photo-peak region of the spectrum, but slight deviation was observed at low energy region especially below 0.2 MeV. The Compton backscattering and Compton continuum counts was significantly transferred into the corresponding photo-peak and consequently the peak to total(P/T) ratio was improved. The P/T ratio results obtained after application of the deconvolution method taken with three calibration sources with gamma-ray’s energies of 81 keV, 303 keV and 356 keV (for 133Ba), 662 keV (for 137Cs), 1173 keV and 1333keV (for 60Co), were improved from(to) 0.50(0.90), 0.40(0.83), 0.57(0.93), 0.31(0.92), 0.18(0.84) and 0.15(0.83), respectively

Ethical issues raised by a Malawian research ethics committee.

Masters Degree. University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg.In 2004 Emanuel and colleagues analysed most major existing ethics codes and produced a framework of eight principles and benchmarks to guide Research Ethics Committees (RECs) during review of research proposals. Although the framework was intended for use in all settings, it is not known whether the ethical issues raised by a Malawian REC are compatible with the framework. This study sought to identify the main ethical issues raised during review of research proposals submitted to a Malawian REC and assess their comparability with the Emanuel et al. (2004) principles and benchmarks. Protocol review minutes of 2013 and 2014 meetings were analysed. The minutes contained the concerns that applicants received. Only minutes of newly submitted applications were included in the study. We excluded expedited and continuing reviews, annual reports, protocol resubmissions and reports. During the study period there were 139 protocols for initial submission. In total, the REC raised 1274 concerns. Of these, 88.8% were accommodated or coded using the eight principles of the Emanuel et al. Framework (2004) as follows; scientific validity (38.3%), informed consent (22.1%), independent review (9.3%), collaborative partnership (4.7%), respect for recruited participants (3.8%), social value (3.7%), favourable risk benefit ratio (3.5%) and fair selection of study population (2.9%). Other non-ethical or administrative concerns frequently raised were language errors (9.7%) and inappropriate referencing and plagiarism (2%). Most ethical concerns raised by the Malawian REC were compatible with the Emanuel et al. framework (2004). Scientific design and inappropriate research methods are major concerns raised during protocol review implying that the REC is protecting human subjects from participating in studies that require strengthening of their scientific merit

Comparison of Experimental and Monte Carlo Simulation of Angular Distributions of Bremsstrahlung Photons from 28-GHZ Electron Cyclotron Resonance (ECR) Ion Source

Angular distributions of deceleration radiation or bremsstrahlung in German, both experimental and simulated from Electron Cyclotron Resonance Ion Source (ECRIS) are not well understood so far. The bremsstrahlung photons of the angular distributions from 28-GHz ECR ion source at Busan Centre of Korea Basic Science Institute (KBSI) were measured in nine azimuthal angles for the first time. Three round type NaI(Tl) detectors were used to measure the angular distributions of the bremsstrahlung photons emitted at the extraction side of the ECRIS at the same time. Another NaI(Tl) detector was placed downstream from the ECR ion source for monitoring photon intensity. The ECR ion source was operated at RF power of 1 kW. Monte Carlo simulation based on Geant4 package was performed to study the angular distributions of the bremsstrahlung photons. The simulation was based on a full geometry of the ECR ion source. Geant4 simulation was executed to take the geometrical acceptance and energy-dependent detection efficiency into account due to large non-uniformity in the material budget. True bremsstrahlung energy spectra from the 28-GHz ECR ion source were obtained using the inverse-matrix deconvolution method. The deconvolution method was based on a full geometry of the Geant4 model of the ECR ion source. It is interesting to observe that the maximum simulated photon yields at angle 150° was correlated with the measured photon yields at angle 150° at the extraction side, which can be explained by the internal structure and shape of the ECR plasma. Keywords: Angular distribution; Bremsstrahlung photons; Deconvolution; ECRIS; Geant4 simulation; NaI(TI) detectors; RF power

From the capital maintenance rule to the solvency test: some thoughts on the new approach to creditor protection in Malawian company law

In July, 2013 Malawi enacted a new Companies Act [Act No. 15 of 2013] replacing the old Companies Act 19 of 1984. The Companies Act, 1984 was basically an adoption of the English Companies Act, 1948 and in line with the English law, it regulated distributions through the classical capital maintenance rule. In contrast, the new Companies Act, 2013 which came into force in May, 2016 has jettisoned the capital maintenance rule. As an alternative to that rule, the Act has introduced for the first time in Malawian company law edifice, the concept of the solvency test. Jurisdictions that have adopted the solvency test in their company law essentially have done so on the basis that company law should focus on the core risk at stake – company insolvency, and that it is meaningless to state that creditors look to the company's capital as a trust fund out which their debts would be settled. Despite having the same theoretical basis for adopting the solvency test, the manner in which the solvency test is defined and applied in a particular statute has significant effects on whether in its operation, the test affords adequate protection to the interests of creditors. This research examines the definition and application of the solvency test under the Companies Act, 2013 so as to determine whether in its operation as a financial restriction for distributions and other company transactions, it will afford adequate protection to creditors. It follows the approach used by Professor Kathleen Van der Linde in her analysis of the solvency and liquidity approach in the Companies Act, 2008. Thus, it analyses the Malawian law by focusing on the two separate elements of the test (equity solvency and balance sheet solvency) as well as other aspects of the test which are likely to raise legal interpretation issues. The twin solvency test adopted in different jurisdictions ordinarily varies in its balance sheet solvency element. Some jurisdictions such as South Africa and New Zealand utilise the net assets approach in their balance sheet test. Others such as New York and Delaware still emphasise on the trust fund doctrine and thus utilise stated capital in their balance sheet test. Malawi is a stated capital/surplus jurisdiction. Its new solvency based regime still focuses on the meaningless trust fund doctrine. The new solvency test approach in Malawi is incomplete and inadequate to fully protect creditors against opportunistic shareholder behaviour. A number of recommendations are made for an effective solvency test approach that will afford adequate protection to creditors against opportunistic shareholder behaviour

Social media, ethics and development in the postmodernist Malawian society

The paper argues that in the postmodernist era, there is great likelihood for people to use social media networks for wrong reasons rather than for promoting “the good” as the great Greek Philosopher, Plato, would demand. This is so because the ultimate goal of a postmodernist society is a commercial one, which is chiefly characterized by a high spirit of competition and general loss of holiness. The paper observes that in a postmodernist society, the people are greatly motivated by the trendy and that there is dominance of the non-realistic aspects, which lead them to lose their sense of humanity. In most cases, the people become mechanical in their pursuit of happiness, wealth and power. At the same time, subscription to the non-realistic aspects of life compels them to be continuous seekers of knowledge. As a result, this aspect makes it possible for nations whose economies are largely knowledge based to thrive. Hence, as more and more people embrace social media, development accelerates while the people lose their long cherished sense of virtue. Thus, social media is a necessary evil in the postmodernist era. After all, the end justifies the means.Key words: postmodernism, the queer, hyperreality, sublimation, de-individuatio