Infestation rates of Varroa destructor

The honey bee (Apis mellifera L.) colony hosts a diversity of pathogens, parasites and pests. The introduced ectoparasite, Varroa destructor Anderson & Trueman (Acari: Varroidae), is regarded as one of the most serious threats to honey bee health today (Rosenkranz et al., 2010). The population dynamics and negative effects of V. destructor have been well documented in Europe and the USA (Rosenkranz et al., 2010). In contrast, the population size and impact on colonies of Braula coeca Nitzsch (Diptera; Braulidae), a wingless fly, are less well documented. This fly is generally considered to be a minor pest (Hepburn, 1978), but a large number of individuals on queens might decrease their ability to lay eggs (Argo, 1926; Crane, 1990) and their larvae can cause physical damage to honey combs when they tunnel below the wax cappings (Hepburn, 1978; Ellis, 2008).The National Research Foundation (NRF) and the University of Pretoria.Taylor and Francisam201