Methods for correcting microwave scattering and emission measurements for atmospheric effects

The author has identified the following significant results. Algorithms were developed to permit correction of scattering coefficient and brightness temperature for the Skylab S193 Radscat for the effects of cloud attenuation. These algorithms depend upon a measurement of the vertically polarized excess brightness temperature at 50 deg incidence angle. This excess temperature is converted to an equivalent 50 deg attenuation, which may then be used to estimate the horizontally polarized excess brightness temperature and reduced scattering coefficient at 50 deg. For angles other than 50 deg, the correction also requires use of the variation of emissivity with salinity and water temperature

Agri-Environmental Instruments for an Integrated Rural Policy: An Economic Analysis

The new Rural Development Regulation of the EU reflects the shift of attention within rural areas from agricultural production towards rural development and embraces both, farmers and non-farm residents. While agricultural production is required to comply with environmental standards, rural areas also have to fulfil the growing demand for landscape, outdoor recreation and wildlife conservation. This paper develops a model of a rural area where farmers and non-farm residents live together. A central government uses a combination of two-policy instruments--direct compensation payments and public services -- aimed at encouraging farmers to adopt environmentally beneficial practices and at the same time to increase the provision of country-side amenities and the sustained vitality of the rural area. The optimal mix of the policy instruments is evaluated under various governmental objectives. The analysis suggests that a combination of direct payments to farmers with the supply of local public services is a promising tool for rural policy development initiatives in the EU.Rural development policy, farmers and non-farmers, integrated rural policy, landscape and recreation, Community/Rural/Urban Development,

Preparedness of the Children’s Government in the Management of Discipline in the Public Primary Schools in Baringo Central Sub-county, Kenya

The role of the student’s leadership in school administration in Kenya and other parts of the world is increasingly becoming more complex because of the changes in the technology, society, culture, encroachment of democracy and emerging issues such as child rights, human rights, HIV/AIDS and drugs and ban of corporal punishment. This has brought about the participatory role among the School Board of Management (BOM), the teachers, pupils and parents.  This study sought to investigate the level of implementation of Children’s Government and the level of preparedness of the Children’s Government in the management of discipline in public primary schools in Baringo Central Sub-county. This study adopted a descriptive survey research design and was guided by Participative leadership theory. The target population of the study was 119 public primary schools with a population of 2499 members of the children’s government, 119 headteachers and 952 class teachers.  Simple random sampling was used to select 36 public primary schools. All the headteachers and 30% of class teachers of the selected schools participated in the study. Purposive sampling was used to select 10 Executive members of the Children’s Government. The researcher utilized questionnaires and interview schedule to collect the data and the collected data was analysed using descriptive statistical techniques. The findings indicated that majority of the schools where the study was carried had children’s governments with free and fair election process of the members of children’s government. The members of the children government were usually involved in the management of pupils’ discipline. Keywords: Children’s Government, discipline, management, preparedness, implementation

“Here you can use it”: Understanding mobile phone sharing and the concerns it elicits in rural Kenya

Globally, mobile phones are mostly used as personal items largely due to their data storage and services provision. However, various features enable mobile phone sharing and this subverts the notion of a single individual use. In cultures where communal sharing is valued and seen as normal, it is natural for mobile phones to be incorporated into other traditionally shared support systems, such as meetings summoned by elders, which involve social, economic, cultural and political activities. This paper draws on a recent doctoral thesis to examine the role of mobile telephony in the social transformation and development of Marakwet, a sub-ethnic group of the Kalenjin community in the Rift Valley region of western Kenya. The paper argues that the adoption and domestication of mobile telephony is both innovative and a source of problems for the Marakwet, depending on how the device is used in everyday life. The paper shows that while mobile phone sharing amongst the Marakwet is the most preferred practice, privacy and data security are key concerns among users

A retrospective study of advanced carcinoma of the cervix treated with a hypofractionated radiation therapy protocol at the department of radiation oncology, University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa

A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Medicine in Radiation Oncology. May, 2014Background: Carcinoma of the cervix is a common cancer among women in developing countries and with the rising HIV environment the burden of cervical cancer might be even greater, stretching the limited resources even further. This retrospective descriptive study evaluates the potential of the hypofractionated departmental protocol for stage 3b carcinoma of the cervix in terms of toxicity, local control, and compares toxicity for HIV negative and positive patients with a mean follow-up of one year. This study also compares the outcome for unilateral to bilateral pelvic sidewall fixed tumours. Methods and Materials Medical records of 104 sequential patients with stage 3b carcinoma of the cervix treated with departmental hypofractionated protocols between 2010/2011 were reviewed. The patients were only sequential after meeting the criterion of being local with a contact telephone number. Patients were treated with two-dimensional standard pelvic portals of external beam radiation therapy of 2.5Gray daily to a total of 40Gray and intracavitary radiotherapy high dose rate of 9Gray weekly to a total of 18Gray. All cases were stratified by HIV status as being HIV positive or negative and by local disease spread as being unilaterally fixed or bilaterally pelvic sidewall fixed tumours. The patient’s treatment duration and vii haemoglobin levels at the start of radiation were also retrieved from her medical records. Outcome was evaluated after six months, using the Papanicolaou smear and clinically, by using the Response Evaluation Criteria In Solid Tumors criteria version 1.1. Toxicity scoring was done by using the Radiation Therapy Oncology Group/Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group criteria. Maximum toxicity information during treatment and follow-up was obtained from patient files. Statistical analysis was done using STATISTICA version 10. The Student’s T-test was used for mean age and toxicity comparison between HIV positive and negative patients. Survival analysis was done using the Kaplan Meier statistical method. Results: The 600 days overall survival and disease free survival were 94.92% and 59.04% respectively. Comparison of unilateral and bilateral pelvic sidewall fixed tumour disease free survival was 63.94% and 48% (p=0.12926) respectively. Seventy one (68.3%) patients were HIV negative while 33 (31.7%) were HIV positive. Human Immunodeficiency Virus positive patients had a mean age of 45.76 years, while the mean age for HIV negative patients were 55.95 years (p=0.000066). There was no statistically significant difference (p=0.49713) in disease free survival between patients completing radiation therapy in ≤24 days (57.03%) versus >24 days (58.76%). There was no statistically significant difference in the outcomes between HIV positive and negative patients for the up to 600 day’s follow-up period. However, haemoglobin levels were prognostic, as the comparison between viii patients with haemoglobin levels of ≤10g/dl and >10g/dl overall survival was 80.05% and 98.81% (p=0.00055), and disease free survival was 0% and 68.57% (p=0.02130) respectively at 470 days. The treatment was well tolerated and there was no difference in toxicity between HIV positive and HIV negative patients. No patient developed acute grade 3-4 skin and genitourinary toxicity. One patient developed acute grade 3 gastrointestinal tract toxicity. Although the follow-up period was rather short to assess late complications, three patients who were HIV negative had late grade 3 skin toxicity, no patient had late genitourinary toxicity and four had late gastrointestinal tract toxicity. Among the four who had late gastrointestinal tract complications, three were HIV negative while one was HIV positive. Conclusion: For this short follow-up study, the departmental hypofractionated protocol has potential and has already reduced long waiting periods for radiotherapy treatment in our department from six months to two to three months. The treatment is tolerable with a comparable outcome as conventional standard fractionation for stage 3b carcinoma of the cervix. However, long follow-up is recommended to ascertain long term outcome and late complications. As other studies have shown, carcinoma of the cervix is seen at an earlier age among HIV positive patients and screening is recommended. Interestingly, haemoglobin levels are prognostic among stage 3b carcinoma of the cervix, in patients treated with hypofractionation

Engaging the disengaged: Examining the domestication of mobile telephony among older adults in Trans-Nzoia and Bungoma Counties in Western Kenya

The world is growing older. Considering the increasing number of older adults, it is imperative to consider how technology design can meet the needs and wants of these important user groups. Mobile phones offer great potential in improving quality of life for older adults in areas of, healthcare, independent living, communication and reduced isolation. There have been numerous studies on technology design for older adults (Fisk, Rogers, Charness, Czaja, & Sharit, 2004), but much of the work has focused on indoor and stationary applications such as desktop computers (Zajicek & Brewster, 2004). Although older people need support beyond stationary situations inside and outside their homes (Goodman, Brewster, & Gray, 2004), limited number of mobile functions are used by older adults due to high cost associated with mobile phones (Lee: 2007). Conversely, Nimrod (2015), argues older people use mobile phones extensively but little is known about relevant domestication processes involved and the extent to which older adults adopt and use mobile phones. This study interviewed 40 older retired civil servants aged 60 years and above in Western Kenya. Using domestication theory, this study examined the appropriation (Possession and ownership), Objectification (meaning and symbols), incorporation of mobile phones in older people’s everyday life and conversion (unintended uses) process of the domestication of mobile technology by the said group. Findings showed that mobile phones both enhanced closeness with their children and isolated them from them too. Majority felt mobile phones had become their ‘extended family members’ bringing the news of the world to them via mobile phone calls and texts. However, the small font size of texts and the fact that phones were getting smaller in size made it difficult to use. Their favourite mobile phone application was the mobile money locally dubbed Mpesa as they could now receive cash transfers from the government. Key words: older adults, mpesa, isolation, connection, e-inclusion, domestication, Keny

Clones of common carp, Cyprinus carpio = New perspectives in fish research

The absence of well defined inbred lines is an important problem associated with scientific research on fish. Inbred lines can be produced by conventional full-sib mating, but at least 10-15 generations are needed to produce homozygous inbred lines. Using common carp, which reach maturity at 1.5 years, this would last some 15-30 years. Nowadays experimental fishes are usually obtained from commercial fish farms, or bred in the laboratory using a limited number of broodstock fish. In both cases the genetic background and the degree of inbreeding of the experimental animal is unknown.In consequence the results from various laboratories are difficult to compare. Bioassays often show a large variation in the experimental results and a relative low reproducability. Moreover, large numbers of fish are needed to obtain statistically significant results. In order to solve these problems this research project was started with the aim to develop homozygous inbred lines of fish by gynogenetic breeding. Furthermore, in our university there was a high need for inbred lines with specific (mutant) genotypes, which could be used in the ongoing research on the immune system and sex determination of common carp.In gynogenesis, eggs are fertilized with genetically inactivated sperm. The resulting haploid embryo can be made diploid by inhibition of the second meiotic division (retention of the second polar body or 2PB method), or by inhibition of the first mitotic division (endomitosis or EM method). In the first case the gynogenetic offspring will be partly heterozygous due to recombination during the preceeding meiotic prophase. In the second case the haploid genome of the embryo is duplicated while the first cell division is prevented. The resulting diploid offspring will be fully homozygous.In a first series of experiments (chapter 3) the optimal conditions for irradiation and dilution of milt, and for administration of a temperature shock to inhibit the second meiotic division, were investigated. Milt was irradiated with U.V. light (235.7 nm). Dilution (in physiological saline) and irradiation duration were important parameters for the survival of spermatozoa. Sperm, diluted 1:3, could be irradiated for 60 minutes (2200 J/m2,min) without loss of fertilization capacity. This fertilization capacity was considerably reduced when higher dilutions were used, while a shorter irradiation period failed to inactivate all spermatozoa.The effectiveness of genetic inactivation was checked by using sperm from scaled males (a dominant trait) and eggs from scattered females (recessive trait). Gynogenetic offspring turned out to be all scattered. Inhibition of the second meiotic division was achieved by administering eggs, fertilized with genetically inactivated sperm, a temperature shock at various moments after fertilization. Consistent yields of 25-50 % viable fry were obtained when eggs were cold shocked (0°C) for 45 minutes, 1-2 or 7-9 minutes after fertilization (at 24 °C). This bimodal response was typical for common carp, but essentially different from other investigations on common carp gynogenesis, where lower incubation temperatures and degumming of egg was practised.In a second series of experiments (chapter 4) the optimal conditions for inhibition of the first mitotic division were investigated. The occurrence of metaphase of the first mitotic division was histologically determined. Consistent yields of 5 - 15 % viable fry were obtained when eggs were heat shocked at 40 °C). for 2 minutes, 28-30 minutes after fertilization (i.e. at metaphase). Accurate timing of the heat shock, as well as the heat shock temperature and duration, were critical in obtaining an optimal yield of diploid fry. The homozygous nature of the gynogenetic fry was demonstrated by the Mendelian segregation patterns of two recessive colour mutations (chapter 4).An important aspect of the described gynogenetic breeding techniques is the effect of the expected homozygosity in a first generation of gynogenetic offspring. In order to investigate this effect, we compared homozygous carps (EM method) with heterozyous gynogenetic carps (2PB method) and a group obtained by full-sib mating (chapter 5). The three groups were all obtained from the same mother, and allowed a comparison of the effects of increasing levels of homozygosity. Skin grafts were exchanged between animals of the same group and between animals of different groups. Skin allografts exchanged among heterozygous gynogenetic carp exhibited prolonged survival. Furthermore a strong histocompatibility (H) locus was seen to segregate in this group. In contrast skin allografts exchanged among homozygous gynogenetic siblings or among normal full-sibs were all rejected in an acute manner, with homozygous fish showing the most vigorous allograft reactions. These findings were explained by assuming that acute allograft reactions were the result of a single strong H-locus disparity, or of a multiple minor H-loci barrier which mimics a strong H-locus effect (chapter 5).In a follow-up experiment (chapter 6) the effects of increasing levels of homozygosity on sex, gonad development and fertility of carps from these three groups were compared. Surprisingly nearly 50 % males and fishes with intersex gonads were found in the EM group while males were absent in the 2PB group. This excluded a possible contamination with non-irradiated (non-inactivated) sperm. Inbreeding significantly increased the mean gonad weight as well as the variation in gonad weights. Full sib (FS) and heterozygous gynogenetic offspring (2PB) were normal in gonad development, but gonads from homozygous gynogenetic (EM) carp were often retarded in vitellogenesis. The ovulation response was significantly reduced with increasing levels of inbreeding. Eggs from ovulated females of the FS, 2PB and EM groups were fertilized with milt from males of the FS and EM groups. Yields of normal fry were reduced in crosses involving FS and 2PB eggs when compared to crosses with EM eggs or milt. This indicated that homozygous fish were essentially free of recessive lethal genes affecting embryo survival (chapter 6).New inbred lines were produced using a combination of both gynogenetic techniques. Homozygous inbred strains were produced by gynogenetic reproduction (2PB method) of homozygous gynogenctic (EM) females. F 1 hybrid strains were produced by crossing homozygous females with homozygous gynogenetic male siblings. The clonal nature of these strains was unequivocally demonstrated by reciprocally exchanged skin allografts. All grafts exchanged among members of the same strain were permanently accepted. Likewise grafts from homozygous strain members were accepted by fish from the related half-sib F 1 hybrid strains, while the reverse grafts were rejected. These results provided evidence for the idea that in carp, as in other vertebrates studied so far, histocompatibility genes exist as major and minor loci which are codominantly expressed (chapter 5).The inbred strains and F 1 hybrids were comparable in body weight and gonad development (chapter 6), but the F 1 hybrids showed a much lower variation in body weight and gonad development. In contrast the phenotypic variation was considerably enlarged in the homozygous inbred strains. This phenomenon is well known in inbred strains of mice and rats, and are generally attributed to developmental instability. The F 1 hybrids are therefore more suited for use in bioassay's, especially since they might possess an increased viability.One of the advantages of the described gynogenetic inbreeding system is that selection of the most interesting and viable genotypes is required only in the first generation. The selected females can be propagated to produce inbred strains are identical to their parents in overall performance. However, in order to obtain males within a gynogenetic inbred line, some females should be sex-inversed by hormonal treatment. Therefore juvenile, non-inbred carps were treated with various doses of orally administrated 17αmethyltestosterone during different periods after hatching. The treatment periods were 3-8 weeks, 6-11 weeks and 10-15 weeks after hatching. The tested hormone concentrations in the food were 50 and 100 ppm, while a dose of 150 ppm was also applied during 6-11 weeks after hatching. The gonads were inspected at 6 months after hatching. Administration of 50 ppm 17α-MT in the food between 6 and 11 weeks after hatching resulted in 92,7% males. Earlier treatments with 17α-MT in concentrations of 50 and 100 ppm of hormone in the food resulted in high percentages of sterile fish while later treatments produced a high percentage of intersex gonads (chapter 7). Surprisingly a similar experiment using 178 estradiol failed to induce female gonads in any of the periods tested and irrespective of the concentrations of hormone used.The optimal treatment with methyltestosterone was used to induce sex-inversion in the produced homozygous inbred strains and F1 hybrids (chapter 8). The untreated groups contained females and a single fish with intersex gonads. In the treated groups however, mainly intersex gonads were observed. Only one F 1 hybrid group contained significantly more males (60 %) than animals with intersex gonads. These results can only be explained by assuming that the success of hormone induced sex inversion is genetically determined.Maleness in common carp is thought to be determined by dominant sex determining genes, since heterozygous gynogenetic offspring were all female. However, in some homozygous gynogenetic offspring nearly 50 % males and intersexes were found. It was therefore suggested that maleness in these groups might he caused by recessive mutations in sex determining genes. The mother of one offspring group, probably heterozygous for a putative mutation, was crossed with an unrelated gynogenetic male from another experimental group. The offspring of this cross was exclusively female, but crosses of these females with gynogenetic males contained again 50 % males and intersexes. It was concluded that these males and intersexes were homozygous for a recessive mutant sex determining gene termed mas-1. To our knowledge such mutations have not been described in fish before (chapter 8).In conclusion, it can be stated that gynogenesis is a very successful and rapid method for the production of homozygous inbred lines of the common carp, Cyprinus carpio. Such inbred lines have until now only been produced in two small aquarium fish species, zebrafish ( Brachydanio rerio ), and medaka ( Oryzias latipes ). Our new inbred lines of common carp will be very important for future scientific research. The use of F 1 hybrids in endocrinological and immunological bioassays will result in an increased standardisation and thus in a reduction of the number of experimental animals needed. Perhaps the inbred lines can also provide an alternative for the use of other experimental vertebrate animals. The present study also demonstrated the possibilities of gynogenetic breeding in unravelling complex biological processes as graft rejection and sex determination. Moreover, the rapid isolation of specific mutants with an abnormal development may offer important possibilities for future research

Mobile telephony and copresence in Marakwet, Kenya

The integration of mobile phones into social life has attracted divergent views on its technosocial capacities for social transformations especially its disruption on the integrity of space and time. While celebrated as a technology that liberates users from the constraints of time and place, it is equally reviled for the defilement of place or space and face to face social encounters (copresence). This paper discusses the influence of mobile telephony on social interactions with specific focus on conversations around copresence in Marakwet. Through ethnographic interviews and observational notes, the paper argues for the need to study mobile telephony as a social assemblage. Drawing from Delanda’s (2006) version of assemblage theory, the researcher finds that copresent encounters has changed the way time and place is conceptualised, with distinctions between private and public places blurred and transformation of social interaction evidenced.Keywords: mobile telephony, co-presence, assemblage, time and space, private versus public space